Chordates Part II Flashcards

Question 1

Q

aquatic mammals minimum body size

Answer

A

much larger than terrestrial

set by thermoregulatory demands of aquatic environment

Question 2

Q

larger mass animal bones

Answer

A

allometric growth

larger bones to support the weight, larger diameter, more robust

Question 3

Q

SA:V changes

Answer

A

as size increase, SA:V decreases
1unit cube = 6:1
2unit cube = 12:8 (1.5)
smaller ratio = lower rate of heat loss

Question 4

Q

sphere SA:V

Answer

A

SA = 4πr^2
V = (4/3)πr^3
smaller SA:V than cube of equal volume
minimize ratio for given volume

Question 5

Q

SA:V changes with shape

Answer

A

slender objects higher SA:V

ectotherms- lower MR, small, long, slender

Question 6

Q

consequences of size and shape variation

Answer

A

allometric relationships
eggs per female increase with body weight
influences survivorship and reproduction

Question 7

Q

evo devo

Answer

A

evolution and development

Question 8

Q

gene duplication

Answer

A

single genes
segment of chromosome
whole chromosome
whole genome

Question 9

Q

pseudogene

Answer

A

DNA sequences similar to normal genes but non-functional; as defunct relatives of functional genes

Question 10

Q

sub-functionalization

Answer

A

pairs of genes that originate from duplication, or paralogs, take on separate functions; ancestral gene-2 functions, new gene- 1 function

Question 11

Q

duplication events result in

Answer

A

pseudogenation
sub-functionalization
neo-functionalization

Question 12

Q

neofunctionalization

Answer

A

one gene copy, or paralog, takes on a totally new function after a gene duplication event; adaptive mutation process; one of the gene copies must mutate to develop a new function

Question 13

Q

functional divergence

Answer

A

genes, after gene duplication, shift in function from an ancestral function

Question 14

Q

gene duplications =

Answer

A

bursts of diversification

Question 15

Q

gene duplication, vertebrate evolution

Answer

A

3 episode widespread gene(ome) duplication

origin of verts, gnathostomes, teleosts

Question 16

Q

HOX clusters

Answer

A

4 in vertebrates

7-8 in teleost

Question 17

Q

snake venom toxins

Answer

A

co-opted from pancreatic origin
expanded by gene duplication
evolved under positive selection- neo-functionalization

Question 18

Q

Coqui development

Answer

A

no tadpole stage
rearrangment of development program
tail resorbed before hatching
adult characters (limbs) develop directly

Question 19

Q

frog with no direct development

Answer

A

tail growth before limb growth- gas exchange surface

Question 20

Q

classic neo-Darwinian 3-stage view of origin of species

Answer

A

mutation- new variant
selection- altered frequency/fixation (‘new population’)
reproductive isolation- new species

Question 21

Q

altered 4-stage evolved view of origin of species

Answer

A

mutation– new gene
re-programming- new ontogeny/individual
selection– new population
reproductive isolation– new species

Question 22

Q

re-programming

Answer

A

developmental/embryonic/ontogenic reprogramming or repatterning

Question 23

Q

mechanisms of developmental reprogramming

Answer

A

changes in developmental programs at various stages of life
heterotopy
heterochrony
heterometry
heterotypy

Question 24

Q

heterotopy

Answer

A

∆ location of gene expression

Question 25

Q

heterochrony

Answer

A

∆ timing of ≥2 processes relative to each other

onset, offset, rate of process
must be allometric

Question 26

Q

heterometry

Answer

A

∆ amount of gene product

Question 27

Q

heterotypy

Answer

A

∆ kind of gene product

Question 28

Q

transformation grid

Answer

A

1 species = reference

reference points relocated in derived species to reconstruct transformed grid

Question 29

Q

heterochronic change

Answer

A

∆ rate of development to maturity
∆ time to maturity
∆ time of onset of development
alone or combined, same or different times

Question 30

Q

classic neotony

Answer

A

axolotl- retains larval features (gills, fins)

Question 31

Q

neotony

Answer

A

paedomorphosis, retention of ontogenetic features into adulthood

Question 32

Q

heterochronic process graphs

Answer

A

∆ timing of development
a- ancestral, d- descendant, k- rate of shape development, a- rate of onset of growth, ß- age when offset shape is attained

Question 33

Q

paedomorphosis- development is truncated

Answer

A

deceleration
hyomorphosis
postdisplacement

Question 34

Q

paedomorphosis, deceleration

Answer

A

neotony

(-k): smaller slope, lower shape change in same time of development

Question 35

Q

paedomorphosis, hypomorphosis

Answer

A

(negative offset, progenesis)

same slope, shorter time period = smaller change in shape

Question 36

Q

paedomorphosis, postdisplacement

Answer

A

(positive onset)

onset of growth is later, offset is same, smaller change in shape

Question 37

Q

peramorphosis- development is extended

Answer

A

acceleration
hypermorphosis
predisplacement

Question 38

Q

peramorphosis, acceleration

Answer

A

(+k), steeper slope, faster change in shape over same time period, larger change in shape overall

Question 39

Q

peramorphosis, hypermorphosis

Answer

A

(positive offset)

start time same, end time later, longer period of development = greater change in shape

Question 40

Q

peramorphosis, predisplacement

Answer

A

(negative onset)

start time is earlier, end time is same, longer period of development = greater change in shape

Question 41

Q

shorter development time to maturity

Answer

A

miniaturization

either ∆ time to maturity or ∆ time of onset

Question 42

Q

∆ time to maturity

Answer

A

progenesis

Question 43

Q

∆ rate of development to maturity

Question 44

Q

facultative paedomorphosis

Answer

A

environmentally induced polymorphism, results in coexistence of mature, gilled, fully aquatic paedomorphic adults and transformed, terrestrial, metamorphic adults in same population
really phenotypic plasticity

Question 45

Q

peramorphosis

Answer

A

individuals of a species mature past adulthood and take on hitherto unseen traits. It is the reverse of paedomorphosis

Question 46

Q

paedotypy

Answer

A

‘paedomorphosis’ but within a population- sometimes the organisms exhibit the change sometimes they do not

Question 47

Q

paedomorphosis in relation to paedotypy

Answer

A

comparison between species

descendents exhibit the change, ancestors do not

Question 48

Q

local heterochrony

Answer

A

changes in specific parts of body (animals are mosaics of different characters)
local terms- paedotypic somatic develop., per atypic gonadal develop.

Question 49

Q

why exhibit paedomorphosis

Answer

A

often determined by environment
saves energy of metamorphosis
early maturity
early reproductive output

Question 50

Q

amniote heart development

Answer

A

earlier development in all amniotes, not originally for endothermy, may be due to nature of egg– yolk movement, gas exchange

Question 51

Q

Tarsier

Answer

A

largest eye:body mass of all mammals

smaller than diapsids at initial devel.- allometric heterochrony

Question 52

Q

diapsid

Answer

A

(“two arches”) amniote tetrapods that developed two holes (temporal fenestra) in each side of their skulls

Question 53

Q

bird heterochrony

Answer

A

birds are miniature dinosaurs- pedomorphosis?
front limb:back limb larger in birds
birds have longer front limb relative to back limb
positive allometry of front limb
skull shape consistent w/ juvenile dino.

Question 54

Q

bird relaxed selection of front limbs

Answer

A

allowed them to ‘experiment’ with limb length- feeding?

led to wing development- exaptation

Question 55

Q

bird skulls

Answer

A

suggest pedomorphosis

retain juvenile shape overall and in bill, unlike dinosaur, alligator

Question 56

Q

bird mosaicism

Answer

A

peramorphic- bill, front limbs

paedomorphic- skull, back limb

Question 57

Q

ratites

Answer

A

ostrich, paedomorphic wing, skull; peramorphic hind limb, more robust skull
mosaic

Question 58

Q

mosaic animals

Answer

A

can’t say an animal is paedomorphic, must be more specific

Question 59

Q

giant anteater

Answer

A

very long snout, peramorphosis, allometric growth

Question 60

Q

bovid, kudu

Answer

A

very elaborate horns with large skull size

peramorphosis, allometric growth

Question 61

Q

peramorphosis in certopsian dinosaurs

Answer

A

bigger animal = larger differentiation from juvenile form

Question 62

Q

Hawaiin honeycreepers

Answer

A

peramorphosis in none, one, or both bills

Question 63

Q

human paedomorphosis

Answer

A

paedomorphic apes?

retention of younger developmental stages of apes

Question 64

Q

differential heterochrony between sexes

Answer

A

sexual dimorphism
blue boxfish: adult female is paedo. compared w/ male in body shape and color pattern
male anglerfish

Answer 64

A

ovoviparous, viviparous

feeding much earlier in viviparous form

Answer 65

A

development of the embryo inside the body of the mother

live birth

Answer 66

A

animals that lay eggs, with little or no other development within the mother

Answer 67

A

develop within eggs that remain within the mother’s body up until they hatch or are about to hatch

Answer 68

A

gradual, slow ontogeny or steps may be condensed for quicker ontogeny into fewer steps, then if one step is skipped you see bigger changes

Answer 69

A

B. occidentalis toes stop growing early, growth curve levels off, toes never project far out of pad— webbed foot, suction cup

Answer 70

A

alters features, skin color

salamander- white = delayed crest cell migration- no color developed

Answer 71

A

iridophores (blue?)
xanthophores (yellow)
erythrophores (orange)
melanocyte (black)

Answer 72

A

set of organs interacting to carry out major body functions

Answer 73

A

body structure that integrates different tissues and carries out a specific function

Answer 74

A

skeleto-muscular system

Answer 75

A

respiratory system
digestive system
excretory system

Answer 76

A

circulatory system

Answer 77

A

reproductive system

Answer 78

A

neuro-endocrine system (nervous system, endocrine glands)

Answer 79

A

maintaining stability, negative feedback

Answer 80

A

environment ∆– physiological ∆– ∆ detected by neural receptors– info. sent along sensory pathway– integrator cells receive info. – info. sent along motor pathway– compensatory changes made by effector(s)– conditions returned to desirable levels

Answer 81

A

∆ detected by skin, hypothalamus– info. sent along afferent (sensory) pathway– neutrons receive sensory info. (brain)– info. sent along efferent (motor) pathway– actions

Answer 82

A

increase/decrease– receptor (sensor)– integrator– effector(s)

Answer 83

A

brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sensory orans, coordinates homeostasis

Answer 84

A

in all metazoans except sponges

Answer 85

A

pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, hormone-secreting glands

Answer 86

A

skeletal, cardiac, smooth muscle- thermoregulation

Answer 87

A

bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage

Answer 88

A

skin, sweat glands, hair, nails; skin largest organ, multiple functions

Answer 89

A

heart, blood vessels, blood; interacts w/ everything

Answer 90

A

lymph nodes, lymph ducts, spleen, thymus

Answer 91

A

lungs, diaphragm, trachea, airways

Answer 92

A

pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, rectum, anus

Answer 93

A

kidneys, bladder, ureter, urethra

Answer 94

A

ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, testes, sperm ducts, accessory glands, penis

Answer 95

A

most have 2; pericardial (surrounding heart), pleura-peritoneal
mammals also have 2 pleural cavities (lungs)

Answer 96

A

organs are connected to cavity to be held in place

some organs outside of cavity (kidneys)

Answer 97

A

vestigial, ‘hold overs’, ancestry

Answer 98

A

third eyelid, darwin’s point, wisdom teeth, erector pili, body hair, coccyx, neck rib, thirteenth rib, fifth toe, paranasal sinuses, vomeronasal organ, fellowmen reflex, extrinsic ear muscles, subclavius muscle, palmaris muscle, plantaris muscle, pyramidalis muscle, appendix, male nipples, male uterus

Answer 99

A

Nictitating membrane- protects eye and sweep out debris, snow blindness, in birds, fish, amphibians, reptiles, tiny fold in inner corner of human eye

Answer 100

A

small, folded point of skin at top of ear in modern humans, remnant of larger shape to focus distant sound

Answer 101

A

early humans chewed lots of plants- another row of molars useful, only ~5% of population has a healthy set of 3rd molars

Answer 102

A

smooth muscle fibres allow animals (mammals) to puff up fur to insulate or intimidate

humans- goosebumps
dogs/cats- fur standing up

Answer 103

A

brows- keep sweat out of eyes
male facial hair- sexual selection
most human body hair has no function

Answer 104

A

fused vertebrae all that is left of tail

tail lost before humans began walking upright

Answer 105

A

set of cervical ribs, leftovers from age of reptiles?, appear in <1% of population, cause nerve/artery problems, also associated w/ childhood cancer?

Answer 106

A

8% of adults have 13, most of us have 12

left over from chimps, gorillas?

Answer 107

A

mainly for balance in humans, grasping clinging to branches in apes

Answer 108

A

nasal sinuses of ancestors may have been lined w/ odour receptors– heightened smell, aid survival
now- troublesome mucus-lined cavities, moistens air we breathe, makes head lighter

Answer 109

A

tiny pit on each side of nasal septum filled w/ nonfunctioning chemoreceptors
maybe once a pheromone detecting ability?

Answer 110

A

exposes VNO just behind front teeth (like horses)

expose to air, where pheromones are expected to be present

Answer 111

A

trio of muscles, made it possible for pre hominids to move ears independently of heads
we still have them– ppl can wiggle ears

Answer 112

A

under shoulder from 1st rib to collarbone, useful for walking on all four
people have 0-2

Answer 113

A

long, narrow, runs from elbow to wrist, missing in 11% of humans, may have been for hanging, climbing
used for reconstructive surgery

Answer 114

A

often mistaken for a nerve
useful for primate grasping with feet
not present in 9% of humans

Answer 115

A

tiny, triangular, pouch like muscle, attached to pubic bone- from pouched marsupials?
>20% of humans don’t have

Answer 116

A

narrow, muscular tube, attached to large intestine for digesting cellulose when humans ate more plant matter, produces some white blood cells
>300,000 Americans/yr get it removed

Answer 117

A

lactiferous ducts from well before testosterone causes sex differentiation in fetus
men have mammary tissue that can be stimulated to produce milk

Answer 118

A

remnant of undeveloped female reproductive organ

hangs off male prostate gland

Answer 119

A

injury, microbial, predator protection
regulation of water
regulation of Tb
social interactions
excretion/elimination of waste
respiratory gas exchange
muscle attachment
sensory
wrapping- shape and support

Answer 120

A

water can pass both ways but amount that can pass varies in different animals- amphibians drink through skin

Answer 121

A

hair, feathers, blood supply in skin, coloring

Answer 122

A

color, size of feathers, chemical attractants from glands

Answer 123

A

heaviest organ in body
most functions
remarkable repair functions
interface w/ environment, serious damage = serious problems

Answer 124

A

dermis and epidermis

Answer 125

A

lower layer
thick, protective functions
consists of layers

Answer 126

A

stratum spongiosum
stratum compactum
hypodermis
exoskeleton 
dermal plates/scales
bone dentin(e), enamel
chromatophores

Answer 127

A

most of blood vessels that feed other layers of skin

Answer 128

A

more compact layer below spongiosum

Answer 129

A

covering of muscles, fat deposits, muscles that allow skin to move relative to rest of body

Answer 130

A

collagenous and elastic fibres, fibroblasts, bones, scales, nerve fibres, blood vessels, smooth muscle, mesodermal

Answer 131

A

reptiles, turtles, crocodiles

Answer 132

A

hydroxyapatite

less fibrous, harder (than bone or dentin)

Answer 133

A

ostracoderms

elaborate bony armour

Answer 134

A

lamellar bone
spongy bone
dentin
enamel

Answer 135

A

dentin + enamel

Answer 136

A

lamellar bone + dentin + enamel

Answer 137

A

dermal/membane bone

endochondral bone

Answer 138

A

formed in membranes
intramembranous ossification
exoskeleton, dematocranium

Answer 139

A

formed in cartilage
endochondral ossification
endoskeleton

Answer 140

A

dermis produced color, stellate, cells and pigment granules within move around
melanophores
liphophores
iridophores

Answer 141

A

neurons with several dendrites radiating from the cell body giving them a star shape

Answer 142

A

contain melanin (dark pigment)

Answer 143

A

melanistic = black

Answer 144

A

albinistic - very conspicuous, low survival

Answer 145

A

contain corotanoids

xanthophores (yellow), erythrophores (red)

Answer 146

A

skin pigments in extinct animals, convergence of melanism

Answer 147

A

time-of-flight secondary mass spectrometry

composition & spatial distribution of surface molecules, including comparisons w/ spectra of melanin

Answer 148

A

scanning electron microscopy

presence of ovoid bodies consistent w/ melanophores

Answer 149

A

energy-dispersive x-ray microanlysis

carbon associated w/ skin and not adjacent sediment

Answer 150

A

3 marine reptiles, each lineage secondarily aquatic

Ichtyopterygia, Mosasauroidea (Squamata), Eosphargis (Testudines, turtle?)

Answer 151

A

thermoregulations- especially in turtle?

crypsis- ichthyosaur lacks countershading (deep diving habit, background matching in low light)

Answer 152

A

contain crystal plates made of guanine- reflect light, influence perceived color

Answer 153

A

blue pigment, very rare, only known in a few species of fish

Answer 154

A

position of chromatophore
∆ distribution of pigment granules w/i chromatophore
seasonal moult

Answer 155

A

chromatophores- ameoboid

ex. if yellow pigments move onto of black pigments

Answer 156

A

densely packed or dispersed- density of color

Answer 157

A

of plumage (birds) or pelage (mammals)
color in epidermal structures can be 'dropped'

Answer 158

A

interactions- agressive, courting
antipredator response
dominant individual use color as social signal

Answer 159

A

sexual dimorphism

greater in breeding season than rest of year- spend energy to enhance breeding color

Answer 160

A

camouflage, varies geographically, may be shown some places and not others, background matching, moult btw color change

Answer 161

A

Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus)
Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus muta)

Answer 162

A

color change through life, younger animals generally more vulnerable

Answer 163

A

mule deer- baby spotted, camouflage when laying down

Racer- snake, adults plain blue/grey, blotches on young

Answer 164

A

physical properties of body colouring
especially dramatic in birds
feathers refract light in various ways- differences in angle we look at it

Answer 165

A

rare, usually not due to pigment, light is scattered by iridophores

Answer 166

A

filtering layer (xanthophore), scattering layer (iridophore), absorbing layer (melanophore)
short λ (blue-green) largely absorbed by filter.
med λ (yellow-green) pass through filter.- scattered by scattering layer- back through filter
long λ (red-orange) - pass through filtering and scattering, absorbed by absorbing layer

Answer 167

A

stratum corneum
stratum germinativum
derivatives

Answer 168

A

outer layer, shed old cells in flakes or one piece

Answer 169

A

below corneum, source of new cells which move up to outer layer

Answer 170

A

various function glands
keratinized structures (nails, claws, hooves, scales/scutes, hair, feathers, horns, antlers, foot pads, beaks)

Answer 171

A

are IN dermis

BUT epidermal in origin

Answer 172

A

dips down into dermis BUT epidermal derivative

Answer 173

A

barriers to water loss and UV

amounts of keratin are variable among taxa

Answer 174

A

moisture, gas exchange, cooling

Answer 175

A

produce defence toxins

Answer 176

A

mucous, poison, scent, sweat, sebaeous, mammary, uropygial

Answer 177

A

base of hair, lubricant for skin

Answer 178

A

base of tail in birds, preening feathers, produces oil

Answer 179

A

nipple- many ducts

teat- single duct

Answer 180

A

bony scales, dermal, permanent, not shed, only lost through injury, persist throughout life, new growth every year

Answer 181

A

horny scales, epidermal, shed, called scutes

Answer 182

A

central bony core, covered by vascularized dermis, outer epithelial layer

Answer 183

A

keratonous, not modified scales, novel, grow from bone throughout life, multiple kinds (fine coat, second coat (guard hairs) grow through to provide protection)

Answer 184

A

down- close to body, small feathers, insulation
body contour feathers- grow through
flight feathers- moulted periodically and replaced, occur in tracks along body

Answer 185

A

touch receptors, transmitting pain, temperature, itch, touch information to CNS
important interface between body and environment

Answer 186

A

nociceptors, pruriceptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptor, hair/glabrous skin, lips/tongue/cheeks, mystical pads, tactile foraging

Answer 187

A

glabbrous/nebrous skin- free of hair (palms, soles)

discriminative touch- clearly distinguish differences in objects, descriminate more clearly

Answer 188

A

localization and movement of food

Answer 189

A

snout of animals, long whiskers
vibrotactility, navigation, spatial orientation in dark
extend sensitivity beyond skin surface

Answer 190

A

snout of star nose mole

elaborate w/ tentacles extremely sensitive to touch, finds way around and food

Answer 191

A

> 700 known vocal species

Answer 192

A

simple vs complex

same frequency, varying frequency/amplitude (moans, growls, peals)

Answer 193

A

stridulation
air passage
drumming

Answer 194

A

rubbing/scraping together fins, bones, teeth

Answer 195

A

little understood, internal movement of air, escape of air through mouth, gills, anus (farts), FRT- frequently repetitive ticks

Answer 196

A

amplitude vs. times

Answer 197

A

frequency (kHz) vs. time (s)

Answer 198

A

3 types- FRT1, FRT2, FRT4

~2-8kHz, ~50-60dB, differ in amplitude

Answer 199

A

‘sonic’ muscles pushing/pulling on internal air/swim bladder
males have longer muscles than females

Answer 200

A

spawning, courtship, agression, territorial, distress, predator/prey behaviour

Answer 201

A

larger in males
larger at spawning time
correlated with fertilization potential

Answer 202

A

pulse repetition rate changes at each stage of courtship- increases in frequency

Answer 203

A

passive acoustics

technology

Answer 204

A

simply listening to sounds w/ hydrophones

non-invasive, non-visual (light not needed), continuous remote monitoring, provides detailed behaviour info

Answer 205

A

AULS
ROVs
Autonomous glider

Answer 206

A

autonomous underwater listening stations

Answer 207

A

remotely operated vehicle

Answer 208

A

buoyancy-drive AUV

moves through water independently, no engine, moves via density changes

Answer 209

A

locate vocal fishes
determine when fish are vocal
study of underwater noise effects
examine fish interactions

Answer 210

A

identify essential fish habitat (EFH)
locate spawning habitats
exploration of the seas
census of marine life

Answer 211

A

spawning behaviour
predator/prey interaction
foraging
territorial defense

Answer 212

A

identify noise sources and levels
quantify temporal/spatial patterns in noise
quantify noise impact on fish behaviour

Answer 213

A

found in Cape Cod by low tech passive acoustic methods, call in chorus just after sunset, tracks time of sunset through summer,

Answer 214

A

using AULS 1000m deep, first in situ recordings in NA, recorded daily vocal activities- more vocal late in day, spawn mostly at night-

Answer 215

A

widely distributed highly vocal family, invasive, may spawn within canals that drain into Hudson

Answer 216

A

track acoustic path, with emphasis on spawning locations

found drum sounds in lake champlain canal, expected to spread dramatically and may alter rivers ecosystem

Answer 217

A

Hydrophones, seismometer, piezometer, bottom pressure recorder, gravimeter

Answer 218

A

measure liquid pressure

Answer 219

A

measure local gravitational field

Answer 220

A

moisture, strength, harness of substrate

Answer 221

A

Strait of Georgia, Saanich Inlet
UVic data archive, shore station, instrument platforms, nodes, autonomous vehicles, surface monitoring by BC ferries, satellites, gliders, profiling system

Answer 222

A

peak listening is 1-10kHz (low frequency), lots of anthropogenic noise

Answer 223

A

fish have 2 inner ears, no middle or external ear, inner ear similar to other verts., sensory hair cells responsible for converting sound to electrical signal

Answer 224

A

high intensity (transient)- fatigue, damage or kill sensory hair cells
low intensity (shipping)- may have behavioural and physiological consequences

Answer 225

A

can be replace or repaired, unlike mammals

Answer 226

A

direct mortality in surfperches

startle and alarm responses when exposed to air gun- rockfish, tighter school, school collapse, become motionless

Answer 227

A

distribution
fitness- reduced growth, reprod.
predator-prey interaction- interference
communication- range reduction, info loss

Answer 228

A

most extensive source of noise in ocean, especially along major shipping channels

Answer 229

A

physiological stress, restricting mate finding, keeping fish from preferred spawn sites

Answer 230

A

impact ability of fish to communicate acoustically or use acoustic ‘soundscape’ to learn about envrionment

Answer 231

A

affect ability to find prey or detect presence of predators

Answer 232

A

vertebrate characteristic
internal, jointed skeleton (bone or cartilage)
works with muscular system

Answer 233

A

support of body
movement via joints
enclosure/protection of vital organs
storage of minerals
assistance in lung ventilation (amniotes)

Answer 234

A

ligaments, tendons, muscles

Answer 235

A

Cap, P, Mg in bones

Answer 236

A

muscles connected to ribs

Answer 237

A

cartilage
bone
ligaments
tendons
muscle

Answer 238

A

matrix 
collagen
chondroblasts
chondrocytes
lacuna(e)

Answer 239

A

only cells found in healthy cartilage; produce and maintain cartilaginous matrix

Answer 240

A

make cartilage matrix

Answer 241

A

hole in which cells grow

Answer 242

A

more flexible than bone
most skeletons start w/ cartilage
offer support, bone growth
no blood vessels

Answer 243

A

Hyaline
Fibrocartilage
Elastic

Answer 244

A

‘temporary’ cartilage during growth; most articulations, ribs, nose, larynx; least elastic; low collagen

Answer 245

A

intervertebral disks, other joints (meniscus in knee); load bearing; show absorption; joint stabilization; able to resist pressure w/ minimum friction; moderately elastic; moderate collagen

Answer 246

A

pinna, epiglottis, other parts of visceral skeleton; vibrational properties help emit/receive sound; most elastic; most collagen

Answer 247

A

important for knew function- load bearing, shock absorption, joint stabilization, joint lubrication, proprioception

Answer 248

A

ability to sense stimuli arising within the body regarding position, motion, and equilibrium

Answer 249

A

support and locomotion
organic components
mineral components
mineral reserves
dynamic

Answer 250

A

balance between stiffness (hardness) and toughness (strength)

Answer 251

A

ex. collagen
toughness and elasticity
resistance to tensile loads

Answer 252

A

ex. hydroxyapatite

stiffness, resistance to compressive loads

Answer 253

A

Ca, P, Mg

Answer 254

A

modeling and remodelling

reabsorption and deposition

Answer 255

A

osteoblast, osteocyte, osteoclast
lacunae, canaliculi
compact, spongy
marrow
woven, lamellar
periosteum

Answer 256

A

cells with single nuclei that synthesize bone

Answer 257

A

star-shaped cell, is the most commonly found cell in mature bone

Answer 258

A

type of bone cell that resorbs bone tissue. This function is critical in the maintenance and repair, and remodelling of bones

Answer 259

A

small canals between cells, blood cells and transport materials

Answer 260

A

protective sheath around bones that connects to blood vessels and other structures like tendons

Answer 261

A

fundamental functional unit of much compact bone; bundle of blood vessels and lacunae

Answer 262

A

compact

spongy

Answer 263

A

cortical; facilitates bone’s main functions: to support the whole body, protect organs, provide levers for movement, store/release calcium; forms the cortex (outer shell) of most bones

Answer 264

A

cancellous, trabecular bone; higher SA:mass; less dense; softer, weaker, more flexible; suitable for metabolic activity-exchanges Ca; typically found at ends of long bones- proximal to joints, within interior of vertebrae; highly vascular; frequently contains red bone marrow- hematopoiesis

Answer 265

A

flexible tissue in interior of bones, 2 types
yellow: fat
red: blood cells
birth- all red
adult- 1/2 red

Answer 266

A

production of blood cells

Answer 267

A

no uniform structure; early development; eventually replaced by lamellar bone

Answer 268

A

compact, spongy, vascular canals, osteons, ‘plywood’ structure

Answer 269

A

regular parallel alignment of collagen into sheets (lamellae), mechanically strong, much lower proportion of osteocytes to surrounding tissue

Answer 270

A

trade-off with toughness
high T low S: collagen– wood– chitin– bone– tooth dentin– mollusk shell– tooth enamel– glass, concrete, rocks, pottery

Answer 271

A

dimensionless, epsilon = ∆length/length

Answer 272

A

elastic region– yield point– plastic region- fracture point

Answer 273

A

increases with high slope
rubber band like
steeper slope = less elastic

Answer 274

A

much lower slope increasing

stays together but is deformed

Answer 275

A

material breaks

Answer 276

A

sigma = F/A

Answer 277

A

y / x (stress/strain)

>yield pt. - yield or failure

Answer 278

A

007% of strain
003 normal strain
015 results in fracture

Answer 279

A

direct or indirect

heterotropic bones

Answer 280

A

direct laying down of bone- dermal armour, dermatocranium, parts of visceral skeleton, clavicle, others

Answer 281

A

indirect, cartilage precursor- most of axial and appendicular skeleton

Answer 282

A

laying down new bone material by osteoblasts- bone tissue formation

Answer 283

A

isolated bones formed outside skeleton proper

Answer 284

A

small bones associated w/ tendons, joints; Often form in response to strain; act like pulleys, prove smooth surface for tendons to slide over increasing muscular forces

Answer 285

A

epiphysis, metaphysis, diaphysis

Answer 286

A

rounded end of a long bone, at its joint with adjacent bone(s)

Answer 287

A

the long midsection of the long bone

Answer 288

A

baculum, baubellum

Os penis, os clitoridis

Answer 289

A

penis bone, penile bone or os penis; bone found in the penis of many placental mammals, absent in human, function unknown- lock and key? some have projections, trident

Answer 290

A

os clitoridis – a bone in the clitoris

Answer 291

A

light skeleton, not necessarily light bones, hollow bones- air filled, not marrow filled; very dense bones, especially cranial compared w/ other animals

Answer 292

A

air spaces in bones

Answer 293

A

only birds, dinosaurs, perhaps gas exchange system

Answer 294

A

proportional to bone stiffness and strength

Answer 295

A

stiffer, stronger, heavier

Answer 296

A

heavy-light density vs. less-more rigid shape
min. density and rigidity = low stiffness and strength
max density and rigidity = high stiff. and strength
isoclines of stiffness and strength

Answer 297

A

woven bone, female birds, formed seasonally, prior to and during egg-laying, Ca reservoir for building hard eggshell

Answer 298

A

hard
flexible
soft

Answer 299

A

self-contained, rigid, fossils

calcareous matter dominates; tortoise, bird, dino, croc, gecko

Answer 300

A

needs water, calcareous layer loose, some fossils; turtles

Answer 301

A

needs water, organic matter dominates, no fossils, gecko, tuatara, lizard, snake

Answer 302

A

pre-ovulatory hpercalcemia (takes 40% of Ca to make eggshells), no medullary bone formed

Answer 303

A

underscores evolutionary link btw. bird and dino
similar reproductive bio
means of sex ID in dino

Answer 304

A

hold bones together, provide support, connective tissue, typically collagen

Answer 305

A

between patella and tibia

holds tibia and femur together

Answer 306

A

endoskeleton, exoskeleton

OR cranial, postcranial

Answer 307

A

within integument
keratinized exo. - epidermis
bony exo. - dermis

Answer 308

A

deep, within body
bony endo.
cartilagenous endo.
notochord

Answer 309

A

splanchnocranium
chondrocranium (cartilage)
dermatocranium

Answer 310

A

axial skeleton

appendicular skeleton

Answer 311

A

vertebral column

notochord

Answer 312

A

limbs

girdle

Answer 313

A

vertebrae, ribs, limb bones

Answer 314

A

centra (teleost), sesamoid

Answer 315

A

skull roof, dentary, clavicle, gastrula, fish scales, osteoderm

Answer 316

A

dermal bones found in ventral body wall of crocodilian/Sphenodon, between sternum and pelvis, do not articulate with vertebrae, support for abdomen, attachment sites for abdominal muscles

Answer 317

A

dermal
endoskeleton: somatic (axial, appendicular), visceral
median fin

Answer 318

A

one of the unpaired (i.e. dorsal, anal, and caudal) fins, restricted to fish, stability, propulsion

Answer 319

A

supports head, keeps it upright

Answer 320

A

greatly varies in all taxa

Answer 321

A

deep homology and co-option (exaptation)

spread of tissue through head (neural crest), not evolution of new skeletal tissue

Answer 322

A

braincase, vertebral column, ribs

Answer 323

A

endochondral part of skull

Answer 324

A

backbone, tail, articulating vertebrae

Answer 325

A

atlas- allows up and down motion of head

Answer 326

A

occipital condyle(s) on back of braincase

Answer 327

A

axis- allows rotary motion of head

Answer 328

A

centrum, neural arch and spine, zygapophyses (pre and post), diapophyses

Answer 329

A

1 or 2 in tetrapods

undersurface protuberances of the occipital bone, articulates w/ superior facets of the atlas vertebra

Answer 330

A

main body of vertebra

Answer 331

A

above centrum, spinal cord runs through

Answer 332

A

projections of the vertebra that fit with adjacent vertebra; articulation, lateral/up/down motion, resist portion

Answer 333

A

the part of the transverse process of a thoracic vertebra that articulates with its corresponding rib

Answer 334

A

many vert., including tetrapods, use lateral motion for locomotion, mammals- minimally

Answer 335

A

less flexible, without zygapophysis

Answer 336

A

elaborate extension of neural spines, probably supported sail, evidence of vascularized tissue- thermoregulation, and/or social signalling

Answer 337

A

Trunk- Presacral, Cervical, Dorsal, Sacral

Caudal

Answer 338

A

thoracic, lumbar

Answer 339

A

very short, don’t bend well, highly reduced

Answer 340

A

7, typically do not have ribs

Answer 341

A

thoracic vertebrae

Answer 342

A

tail, coccyx

Answer 343

A

long bone-fused vertebrae at base of vertebral column, frogs and toads

Answer 344

A

stiff, lots of fusion, clavicle + inter clavicle = wishbone

Answer 345

A

furcula, fusion of two clavicle bones

Answer 346

A

many vertebrae, large range of motion

Answer 347

A

self amputation

Answer 348

A

fracture planes in vertebrae separate w/ muscle movement; tail moves back and forth rapidly, builds up lactic acid
regenerated tail is different- cartilaginous

Answer 349

A

protect organs, used in breathing (muscle attachment), modified in various groups (ex. turtle)

Answer 350

A

homologous w/ fish dorsal ribs
attached to sternum ventrally
reduction/loss (ex. anuran)
extras (ex. snakes)

Answer 351

A

dorsal/ventral/both

Answer 352

A

cervical ribs ‘spread out’ to give the illusion of being larger

Answer 353

A

wings, ribs articulate w/ vertebrae to spread out skin and form wings

Answer 354

A

pierces own body wall w/ ribs to spread toxin

Answer 355

A

not in animals that move ribs

very in animals that don’t, especially birds (keel)

Answer 356

A

limbs, girdles

Answer 357

A

firmly attached to sacrum- hind limbs need firm attachment to provide thrust (not in fishes)

Answer 358

A

large, triangular bone at base of spine and upper, back of pelvic cavity, inserted between hip bones, number of fused vertebrae

Answer 359

A

dogs- 3

humans, horses - 5

Answer 360

A

not attached to head, often not attached to vertebral column (except in brachiators, flyers)
fishes- firmly attached to head

Answer 361

A

primate, firm attachment of pectoral girdle for swinging

Answer 362

A

present in crossopterygian- tetrapods- amniotes

deep homology, homologies in limbs

Answer 363

A

Similar characteristics due to relatedness

Answer 364

A

ilium, pubis, ischium

Answer 365

A

present in fish and tetrapods- lost in some groups
only dermal element in mammal pectoral girdle
variable presence in mammals

Answer 366

A

present- human, bats
reduced- cats
most carnivores- absent or rudimentary

Answer 367

A

carpals + metacarpals + phalanges

Answer 368

A

tarsals + metatarsals + phalanges

Answer 369

A

homologies

Answer 370

A

fins, reduction/loss of fins, legs, ‘flippers’, wings, loss of flight, body elongation, reduction/loss of digits/limbs

Answer 371

A

support
locomotion
digging
grasping- perching, climbing, food manipulation

Answer 372

A

well conserved, chiefly arboreal life, feeding
very well-developed in tree frogs (manual and pedal)
best developed in mammals (manual and pedal)

Answer 373

A

front limbs modified to wings- grasping behaviour with back limbs, diverse toe configuration

Answer 374

A

negotiating complex habitat, varying degrees of manual and pedal grasping

Answer 375

A

convergence

suckers for gripping, digits that can wrap around branches

Answer 376

A

birds, longer history of bipedalism that we do

Answer 377

A

hindlimb adapted for bipedal locomotion
shift from ab. muscle– back limbs for locomotor
shift from tail counter weight in dino.– knee as centre of gravity for straight back

Answer 378

A

all bipedal

Answer 379

A

were bones meet, where all normal muscular function happens

Answer 380

A

immoveable
slightly moveable
freely moveable

Answer 381

A

synarthrosis
bones meet at a suture, associated w/ connective tissue
ex. skull bones

Answer 382

A

amphiarthrosis
usually cartilage and connective tissue btw. bones, quite variable, ex. pubic symphysis (moves for child birth), spinal column

Answer 383

A

diarthrosis; synovial joint

subtypes: hinge joints, ball and socket joints, etc.

Answer 384

A

joints btw vertebrae, vertebrae move against each other but movement is limited

Answer 385

A

serrate joint, scarf joint (wedge shape), butt joint (flush), peg and socket, lap joint (edges overtop each other, rare)

Answer 386

A

finger, knee, elbow; one-way movement

Answer 387

A

hip, shoulder; rotary motion

Answer 388

A

reduces friction between articular cartilage of synovial joints during movement (freely moveable joints)

Answer 389

A

chondrocranium
splanchnocranium
dermatocranium

Answer 390

A

neurocranium, braincase- somatic

and neural crest

Answer 391

A

visceral skeleton, facial skeleton- from branchial arches

and neural crest

Answer 392

A

skull roof- dermal

and neural crest

Answer 393

A

gnathostome jaw

Answer 394

A

hyomandiubular

Answer 395

A

amphistyly
hyostyly
autostyly
streptostyly

Answer 396

A

mandibular arch supported in part by hyomandibular, primitive Chondrichthyes

Answer 397

A

mandibular arch supported primarily by hyomandibula- Chondrichthyes, Actinopterygia

Answer 398

A

mandibular arch not supported by hyomandibule- Dipnoi, Tetrapoda

Answer 399

A

quadrate bone moveable- Aves, Squamates

Answer 400

A

Articular (teleost, amph., reptile)— Malleus (mammals)

Answer 401

A

quadrate (teleost, amph., reptile)—- Incus (mammals)

Answer 402

A

hyomandibula (teleost)– stapes (amph., reptile., mammal)

Answer 403

A

mammals- restricted to 2 bones

other vets., more bones can support teeth

Answer 404

A

incisors- ripping
canines- stabbing
molars- chewing

Answer 405

A

incisors in front, large sharp canines, pointy triangular premolars, couple of molars

Answer 406

A

few small incisors, canines, space with no teeth, few premolars and molars- flat

Answer 407

A

teeth in same order but not much differences in shape/size, all relatively flat, fit together tightly, no spaces

Answer 408

A

openings in side of skull, defined relative to position of bones; anapsid, synapsid, parapsid, diapsid

Answer 409

A

ancestral, stem, lacking opening, early reptiles, turtles

Answer 410

A

2 temporal fenestrae behind orbit, one superior and one inferior; dinosaurs, crocodilians, birds, tuaturas, lizards, snakes

Answer 411

A

1 temporal fenestra behind the eye, below the postorbital bone, like the lower fenestrae in diapsids; extinct reptiles, mammals

Answer 412

A

(euryapsids) extinct, ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs; 1 fenestra behind the eye, above the postorbital, similar to upper fenestra of diapsids

Answer 413

A

quadrate bone rotates, increases mobility of jaws, lizards, snakes; 2 joints for jaw- one can be locked while other moves- more fore/apt movement, can swing out, can aid tongue projection, more forceful bite, can change in-lever

Answer 414

A

sphenodon, crocs- unmodified diapsid
lizards- lower temporal bar lost- freeing quadrate
snakes- lower and upper bar lost, very open skull, highly developed streptostyly, more moveable quadrate

Answer 415

A

temporal opening expanded and became confluent w/ orbital opening; bar btw eye and temporal fenestra lost
large open side of skull- large muscle attachment

Answer 416

A

anapsid but debatable- may be diapsid and secondarily anapsid

Answer 417

A

lighten skull without weakening, provide margins for muscle attachment, space for muscles to bulge out

Answer 418

A

lower temporal bar is lost very early in history of diapsids, is re-aquired in tuatara and others to reduce stress

Answer 419

A

reduction of stress on skull

Answer 420

A

scaled reptiles, are the largest recent order of reptiles, comprising all lizards and snakes

Answer 421

A

muscles from neurocranium to lower jaw (anapsid)– fenestra opens in dermatocranium– attachment of jaw muscles expands to edges of openings (therapsid)– jaw muscles attach to surface of dermatocranium (diapsid, synapsid)

Answer 422

A

cheek bone, zygomatic process of temporal bone- a bone extending forward from the side of the skull, over the opening of the ear

Answer 423

A

allowed more musculature jaw– increases stresses on skull when animal bites– opened possibility for streptostyly

Answer 424

A

more stress on skull with biting

Answer 425

A

metakinesis, mesokinesis, prokinesis

movement of skull roof relative to braincase

Answer 426

A

joint between brain case and back of skull is at back of skull

Answer 427

A

joint is in middle of skull- near orbits

Answer 428

A

joint in front of the orbit where snout articulates

Answer 429

A

fibrocartilaginous fusion between two bones

Answer 430

A

multiple joints all over skull, extremely mobile symphysis, not fixed like in humans, stretches

Answer 431

A

lower temporal bar, smaller jaw muscles and lower bite force than similar sized lizards, propalineal feeding, mastication (chew food more than other reptiles), handles food longer

Answer 432

A

have bar, have strongest absolute bite of any living tetrapod; lizards the size of an alligator would have a much stronger bite (temporal bar lowers bite force)

Answer 433

A

close mouth- lower jaw in slightly posterior position– jaw slides forward- slides back in forth with food between teeth- temporal bar stabilizes jaw

Answer 434

A

found in various amniotes

best known in mammals

Answer 435

A

primary palate (early tetrapod)– growth across primary palate, shelf of bone (therapsid)– passageway btw primary and secondary palate, moves internal naris farther back into mouth, separate passage for eating and breathing (mammal)

Answer 436

A

choana- the paired openings between the nasal cavity and the nasopharynx

Answer 437

A

soft palate pressed against epiglottis- 2nd seal, allows swallowing milk and breathing (through nose)- disappears in adults because trachea drops

Answer 438

A

projection from posterior edge of middle of soft palate; almost completely unique to humans, unknown function and origin, involved in speech?

Answer 439

A

mammals- maxilla, premaxilla, palatine

crocs- those 3 + 1 more.. pterygoid?

Answer 440

A

flap closes off passageway for air, from water in mouth, so it can sit in the water for long periods of time ready to snap jaws shut

Answer 441

A

skull less resistant to bending if palate removed

maximum resistant with full palate

Answer 442

A

movement of body and parts, support, posture, protection of joints, internal transport, homeostatic adjustments, protein storage, metabolic heat production

Answer 443

A

aids movements in blood vessels, digestive tract, reproductive tract

Answer 444

A

eyes- pupils constricting/dialating

Answer 445

A

shivering

Answer 446

A

drastically change supply of blood to different body parts
kidneys: 24% - 1%
brain: 13% - 3%
skin: 9% - 2%
heart: 4.3% - 4.%
skeletal muscle: 21% - 88%

Answer 447

A

smooth, skeletal, cardiac

Answer 448

A

not striated, spindle shaped, not branched, involuntary, capable of slow sustained contractions, ex. walls of blood vessels

Answer 449

A

striated, cylindrical, not branched, largely voluntary

Answer 450

A

striated, cylindrical, branched, involuntary, looks like skeletal, ex. heart, involuntary- don’t control rate of heart beat, working all the time, branching propagates contractions

Answer 451

A

actin, myosin proteins- sarcomeres- make up muscle fibrils- make up muscle fibres– make up strap muscle

Answer 452

A

sliding of actin chains on myosin chains

shortened sarcomere length = increased overlap btw myosin and actin = maximum contraction = resting length

Answer 453

A

being close to resting length
more x-sectional area- more potential force
velocity- max force at lowest velocity

Answer 454

A

force vs. sarcomere length
small sarcomere (hypercontracted)-- increasing up to max. force at resting length--- decreases to maximally extended sarcomere

Answer 455

A

muscle configuration
proportion of red and white fibre
longer muscle can shorten more than shorter muscle

Answer 456

A

long muscle- more sarcomeres in series- can shorten more than a fibre with fewer sarcomeres in series

Answer 457

A

parallel- strap, fusiform
pennate- angled (diff. angle than long axis)
bipennate- 2 different directions

Answer 458

A

typically smaller, can fit into smaller places

Answer 459

A

anatomical, physiological

some dissipation of force if fibres aren’t in long axis direction, still contribute a lot of force

Answer 460

A

across long axis of muscle
area of a slice through the widest part of the muscle perpendicular to muscles length
similar in parallel and pennate muscle

Answer 461

A

different in pennate b/c fibres are not parallel to long axis
area of a slice that cuts across all fibres of the muscle
different for a parallel and pennate muscle

Answer 462

A

connect muscle to bone, collagenous, all over the place, fairly elastic, can extend length by ~16%, store elastic energy when stretched which can be used by recoil to move body forward

Answer 463

A

by contraction not relaxation

2 opposite actions need to take place (antagonism)

Answer 464

A

hole at back of skull where spinal cord enters and connects w/ brain

Answer 465

A

hip, concavity, provides part of ball and socket joint w/ femur, head of femur fits into acetabulum

Answer 466

A

extension: tricep contracts, bicep relaxes
flexion: tricep relaxes, bicep contracts
biceps and triceps are antagonistic

Answer 467

A

pectoralis- wing goes down

supracoracoideus- raises wing

Answer 468

A

perform ~same function in slightly different ways + up to ore complex action together

Answer 469

A

elbow, funny bone, where triceps connect

size depends on importance of tricep (ex. digging animal)

Answer 470

A

gull- downstroke more important

hummingbird- upstroke more important- larger supracoracoideus

Answer 471

A

extensor (extend), flexor (flex), adductor/abductor, levator, depressor, rotator, sphincter

Answer 472

A

adductor- bring body part towards body

abductor- takes body part away from body

Answer 473

A

levator- raises

depressor- lowers

Answer 474

A

pronation- involves placing palms into the face-down position
supination- turns the palms anteriorly or superiorly to the supine (face-up) position

Answer 475

A

sphincter- ringlike muscles surrounding and able to contract or close a bodily passage or opening
dilator- muscles that widen a body part

Answer 476

A

typically stable end of muscle, sometimes more proximal part of muscle (closer to body)

Answer 477

A

make homologies uncertain

Answer 478

A

myomeres, separated by myosepta

Answer 479

A

amphioxus: v-shaped
lamprey: w-shaped
shark- bony fish- more complexly folded
higher complexity - contraction extends beyond segment, important in locomotion

Answer 480

A

hypaxial- lie ventral to horizontal septum of vertebrae

epaxial- lie dorsal to the septum

Answer 481

A

use lateral movement of body to extend stride

hard to move with limbs splayed to side

Answer 482

A

stride dependent on motion of limbs, musculature more developed around appendices, locomotory apparatus is limbs

Answer 483

A

expatiate use for contractions

Answer 484

A

hypertrophy, hyperplasia

Answer 485

A

increasing size of individual muscle fibres

Answer 486

A

increase in number of fibres, due to splitting of fibres

Answer 487

A

oviparity- lay eggs

viviparity- birth to live young with placenta

Answer 488

A

placentotrophy- delivery via placenta

lecithotrophy- delivery of nutrients via yolk- most reptiles (even viviparous)

Answer 489

A

vittelogenesis

Answer 490

A

income- nutrients acquired to make yolk
capital- using previously stored nutrients
snakes more often use capital, female snakes often exhibit anorexia, don’t feed while carrying young- especially lose muscle (high protein store)

Answer 491

A

larval fish (<5mm)

Answer 492

A

feed initially from yolk-sac
very poor swimmers
start with no vertebral column
stage of life history where recruitment is determined

Answer 493

A

> 99.9% - starvation, predation, advective losses (poor swimmers, carried away by currents in unfavourable conditions)

Answer 494

A

<1915- variations in migration patterns

now know- due to recruitment

Answer 495

A

variability in abundance results from interannual variability in # of individuals that survive larval stage

Answer 496

A

branch of biological oceanography that studies the relationship between physical environment and abundance of marine fish

Answer 497

A

Johann Hjort, 1914

Answer 498

A

millions of eggs/ year
clear, buoyant, ~1mm diameter
preyed upon by zooplankton, larval fish, large fish (cannabalism common)

Answer 499

A

days-months

colder water = longer time to hatch

Answer 500

A

nutrition to developing embryo
aids in buoyancy
nutrients are function of mothers health

Answer 501

A

2 phases: yolk-sac phase, post yolk-sac phase
large eyes, visual predators
suction feeding

Answer 502

A

rely on yolk-sac, days-weeks (dependent on T), no gills no obvious fins, no proper tail

Answer 503

A

after yolk used up- exogenous feeding (plankton)

Answer 504

A

initially copepod nauplii– switch to larger zooplankton

Answer 505

A

foraging ability, gape (mouth width)

Answer 506

A

swim up to prey, open mouth quickly, creates vacuum, prey sucked into mouth

Answer 507

A

about another body length away (~1cm)

prey are ~5cm apart, spend most of time foraging

Answer 508

A

UL/v
U = swimming speed m/s
L = body length m
v = viscosity of seawater m^2/s - 10^-6 for 20º seawater

Answer 509

A

viscous forces dominate, environment is totally viscous to animal, like human swimming through honey, larval fish in this range

Answer 510

A

intertial forces begin to dominate

Answer 511

A

sperm 0.01
copepod 4
larval fish 25
human 4x10^6
blue whale 3x10^8

Answer 512

A

fore-stroke and return are identical- useless in low Re conditions (must be non-reciprocating)

Answer 513

A

transition from larval-juvenile
begins ~5-10mm
juveniles resemble miniature adults
mortality declines after metamorphosis

Answer 514

A

cutaneous (skin) breathing - gill breathing
develop paired pectoral fins, tail
develop adult-like pigment
eel-like swimming - beat and glide swimming
eye migration (flatfishes)
develop vertebrae- body rigidity for swimming

Answer 515

A

early life history stages

Answer 516

A

eggs 1mm
yolksac larva 3mm
late larval period 8mm
metamorphosed juvenile 10mm

Answer 517

A

larval fish, entire body curved like an eel or ‘C’ (no vertebral column)

Answer 518

A

swim speed increases
response time decreases
acceleration increases
time to max speed decreases
body curvature decreases

Answer 519

A

head and tail grow relatively faster than rest of body- developing speed capabilities
after early development, change in growth rates

Answer 520

A

O2 uptake AFTER larval development (skin before)

ion exchange- Na+ uptake increases faster than O2 uptake

Answer 521

A

significantly earlier or Na+ uptake than O2 uptake
~16days vs. ~30?
ion exchange more important than respiration in larva?

Answer 522

A

living in 3D environment, need binocular vision (eggs are buoyant)

Answer 523

A

can be as quick as 2 days, or 120
eyes kept in same plane as body turns
adaptation for 2D environment (ocean floor)

Answer 524

A

mortality %/day vs. length mm
- exponential
egg stage is highest percent and sharp slope
inflection point of graph is metamorphosis (~10mm)

Answer 525

A

tight distribution with size, not age- hydrodynamic constraints (Re number)
most undergo metamorphosis at 5-10mm

Answer 526

A

remodelling can’t be done at low Re
reciprocal motion doesn’t work at low Re
gill transition wouldn’t work at low Re
can’t have vertebral column in low Re (need flexibility)
fins no use in low Re (would move them back and forth)

Answer 527

A

mass, m, kg
length, l, meter
time, t, second
force, F, newton
work, W, joule
power, P, watt

Answer 528

A

isotonic- concentric, eccentric

isometric

Answer 529

A

muscle changes length as it contracts- results in movement

Answer 530

A

force of muscle is adequate for moving a load
ex. picking up a stick
muscle shortens as it contracts
muscle contraction - sarcomeres

Answer 531

A

muscle lengthens as it is contraction

ex. big heavy load you can’t pick up

Answer 532

A

muscle doesn’t change length as it contracts, constant length from one end to other including tendon connecting it, important in posture and support
ex. pushing a boulder you can’t move, pull open a door that won’t open

Answer 533

A

trade-off, decreasing, can’t maximize both at once, force is max at velocity = 0

Answer 534

A

force drops as velocity increases but power increases at intermediate velocity, can’t maximize force and power at the same time

Answer 535

A

fast-twitch fibres
slow-twitch fibres
some intermediates

Answer 536

A

white/blue, Type II; generate high force, rapid fatigue, high glycogen, anaerobic (glycolytic) metabolism- build up lactic acid, moderate blood and oxygen supply, low myoglobin, fast actions

Answer 537

A

red, Type I; low force, lower power, fatigue-resistant, abundant mitochondria- aerobic (oxidative) metabolism, myoglobin- transport hemoglobin, rich in blood and oxygen, can contract in sustained fashion

Answer 538

A

speed depends on fibre composition, individual muscle can have both types of fibres, actions depend on amount of each type

Answer 539

A

dark meat- red fibres- sustained flying

Answer 540

A

white meat- white fibres- can’t fly- fast twitch

Answer 541

A

slow-twitch- force has lower inflection point, power has lower max (~same as force infl. pt. in fast-twitch), max. velocity is ~1/2 that of fast-twitch
fast-twich have more power

Answer 542

A

eye: reaches max quick and dissipates quick- mostly fast-twitch
deep muscle of leg: reaches max slower and sustains it, declines much slower (mostly slow-twitch)
calf muscles: intermediate between the two

Answer 543

A

originally thought to not be a trade-off, after correcting for differences- found a negative correlation
can’t be a specialist and a generalist at the same time

Answer 544

A

high endurance = low sprint speed
high spring speed in ground dwelling- escape behaviour when entering open habitats, not seen in all lizards because its a trade-off

Answer 545

A

large variations, constant swimmers = high proportion; benthic living = low proportion

Answer 546

A

usually superficial, internalized in tuna

Answer 547

A

red muscle much lower in graph, much less powerful- slow, medium locomotion; white muscle kicks in and provides the power and fast locomotion

Answer 548

A

tuna: internalized red muscle, body remains stiff, caudal peduncle and tail are point of flexion
billfish: superficial red muscle, most of body involved in propagation of propulsion

Answer 549

A

muscular atrophy occurring with age, even if used; gradual deterioration of function

Answer 550

A

degenerative loss of skeletal muscle mass (0.5–1% loss per year after the age of 50), quality, and strength associated with aging

Answer 551

A

loss of fast-twitch fibres
shifting from fast-slow twitch phenotype with age, slowing of muscle contractile properties- reduces cost of locomotion in elderly

Answer 552

A

loaded with mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum- supply Ca for nervous action
very economical- lowest cost per twitch
intermediate type of muscle
generates heat (one of the costs?)

Answer 553

A

class 1, 2, 3
fulcrum between in-force and load
in-force generated by muscular contraction
lever-bone
fulcrum- typically a joint
speed/force depend on distances

Answer 554

A

out down, fulcrum, in up

ex. pushing down on toe, ankle, heel moving up

Answer 555

A

fulcrum, out up, in up

ex. pivot toe, leg goes up up, lift heal up

Answer 556

A

fulcrum, in up, out up

ex. pivot heel, push on leg, toe goes down

Answer 557

A

l_i, length

Answer 558

A

F_o, load

Answer 559

A

F_i * I_i = F_o * I_o

Answer 560

A

F_i * I_i > F_o * I_o

Answer 561

A

F_i * I_i < F_o * I_o

Answer 562

A

F_o = F_i (I_i / I_o)

to increase F_o—- increase F_i, or I_i / I_o

Answer 563

A

runner: short I_i, ratio is fairly low, not very big mechanical advantage; mechanical advantage tells a lot about function

Answer 564

A

decrease I_i / I_o

V_o * I_i = V_i * I_o

Answer 565

A

GR = I_o / I_i

Answer 566

A

speed (and stride in limbs)

Answer 567

A

depends on orientation
arm at right angle- force directed along length of arm
arm open more than 90º- force ‘out’ from ‘elbow pit’

Answer 568

A

whole foot on ground- small metatarsals

Answer 569

A

walk on toes- med. metatarsals

Answer 570

A

walk on tips of toes- large metatarsals

Answer 571

A

effects gearing, speed

Answer 572

A

high gear gluteal group- gluteus maximus, gluteus medius
low gear femoral group- adductor femoris
high AND low gear muscles used to extend femur
can rotate limb very rapidly with little power, rapid acting muscles, steady speeds
femoris- low gear for rapid acceleration

Answer 573

A

mechanical advantage

Answer 574

A

large adductor muscle, huge tendon, 3rd class lever, Li/Lo amplifies AM force transmission from jaw tip to posterior teeth- more powerful force at back of mouth

Answer 575

A

2 different size in-levers and out-levers

upper articulation = longer in-lever = more forceful bite

Answer 576

A

acellular outer mucus layer in fish, protective substance including toxins and antimicrobial compounds; limited keratinization

Answer 577

A

detritivores, planktivores, herbivores, carnivores, molluscivores, insectivores, piscivores, omnivores, parasites

Answer 578

A

parasitize (jawless fish)– suction, biting (since jaw evolution, in most fish)

Answer 579

A

premaxilla protrusion, pharyngeal jaws, mechanical diversity, muscle duplication

Answer 580

A

food capture- feet, mouth, teeth, tongue
oral transport- food handling in mouth, ingestion, mastication, swallowing, teeth, tongue, cranial kinesis, salivary glands

Answer 581

A

sublingual gland, mandibular gland, parotid gland, orbital gland; lubricate foods and start digestion

Answer 582

A

has evolved twice, led to increased processing capabilities, can tackle larger prey because they can break it into pieces as they kill it

Answer 583

A

no teeth in jaws, long serrated teeth in pharyngeal jaw- pharyngeal teeth; interact with basioccipital pad to grind down material making it more digestible

Answer 584

A

are brought forward when it opens its mouth and becomes an important prey capture mechanism- unable to generate pressure differences for suction feeding, massive adductor muscles propel pharyngeal teeth

Answer 585

A

prey is generally same density as water- approaching it pushes it away- most open mouth and oral cavity wide to create negative pressure- suck in prey and water

Answer 586

A

capable of feeding on land and in water (most turtle only in water), hyoid apparatus depresses more in feeding in water than in land

Answer 587

A

suction feeding, raptorial pharyngeal jaws, pterygoid walk, inertial feeding

Answer 588

A

teleosts, aquatic amphibians, aquatic turtles

Answer 589

A

moray eels

Answer 590

A

most snakes, move jaws independently over prey and pull it in

Answer 591

A

birds, lizards, like a pelican

Answer 592

A

breaking food down into pieces

Answer 593

A

in stomach

Answer 594

A

jaw joint, shapes of jaws changed so jaws be brought together to breakdown food unilaterally (one side of jaw at a time)
change in jaw joint and adductor muscles- transverse movements (teeth can be moved side to side against each other)
tribosphenic molars develop w/ complex surfaces, cusps that fit together dynamically during occlusion (can grind up food)

Answer 595

A

manner in which the upper and lower teeth come together when the mouth is closed

Answer 596

A

unique to mammals, parallel to some dinos., puncture crushing- vertical bite first, then more side to side like horse/cow

Answer 597

A

moving muscle insertions further out on lower jaw
moving muscle insertions higher onto coronoid process
moving the position of the jaw joint to increase lever arm

Answer 598

A

jaw closes, up and down, no fancy movement

Answer 599

A

tuatara, jaws move against each other longitudinally

Answer 600

A

chew with guts not mouth, no teeth, beaks only for capture, can move both jaws, unique to raise upper jaw

Answer 601

A

ventriculus- modified stomach, very muscular, horny sheet inside of it, keratinous sheet grinds up food

Answer 602

A

gastroliths (typically rough rocks)

Answer 603

A

initially thought this, but these traits are seen together in some dinosaurs; probably aided reduction of head mass for flight

Answer 604

A

tubular passage extending from the mouth to the anus, through which food is passed and digested

Answer 605

A

gastrointestinal; esophagus, stomach, intestine; organ system responsible for consuming and digesting food, absorbing nutrients, expelling waste

Answer 606

A

esophageal sphincter before stomach, gastric sphincter after stomach

Answer 607

A

fore/mid/hind

Answer 608

A

beginning of large intestine; processing bacterial digestion of plant material, present in many verts.

Answer 609

A

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

Answer 610

A

cecum, colon, rectum, anus

Answer 611

A

straight- agnathan
spiral valve- chondrichthian
more and more complicated up to mammals
increasing surface area to improve digestion

Answer 612

A

the longer the gut, difficulty with which plant material is digested
increasingly long and coiled intestines: carnivore- omnivore- hebivore

Answer 613

A

complex stomach with multiple chambers; regurgitate partially digested food from stomach (Cud), chew it again; Rumination- rechewing the cud, facilitates proper breakdown of cellulose rich plant matter

Answer 614

A

stomach, primary digestion, HCL

Answer 615

A

intestine, pancreas, liver; digestion, absorption, peptidases, amylases, etc.,

Answer 616

A

hindgut chamber, rectum; absorption, defecation, fermentation

Answer 617

A

proventriculus- secretes acids/enzymes

gizzard- mechanical breakdown

Answer 618

A

dilation of esophagus that stores and softens food

Answer 619

A

villi, which are lined with microvilli

enormously increase surface area

Answer 620

A

to change

Answer 621

A

lots remodelling, increases in size with feeding, including increasing size of villi, increase seen in multiple organs (stomach, lungs, heart, pancreas, liver, kidneys, intestinal mucosa)

Answer 622

A

Megacolon; musculature in gut stops working, faces are not moved properly, removed surgically

Answer 623

A

typical in large bodied vipers; may not deficit in 400days, provide balance when animal strikes, rapid strikes lunge it forward, retain feces more than other species that don’t lunge

Answer 624

A

resemblance to remote ancestors rather than to parents; reversion to an earlier type; ‘one-off’ developmental abnormalities, ‘throwbacks’; evolutionary reversals; problems for phylogenetic analysis

Answer 625

A

occasionally find a snake with Diddy biddy hind limb buds

Answer 626

A

some babies born with tails

human coronary circulation similar to reptiles

Answer 627

A

biologist who argued that evolution can’t run backwards, genes/developmental pathways released from selective pressure will become nonfunctional

Answer 628

A

axolotl- paedomorphosis lost, metamorphosis regained

Answer 629

A

viviparity has evolved multiple times, most transitions are o-v, but in some cases v-o; if oviparity is ancestral (as is thought) then this represents a requisition

Answer 630

A

rare atavistic anomalies in individual specimens

Answer 631

A

expressed in all members of a give clade

Answer 632

A

phylogenetic character reversals- important for evolution, mechanism for generating morphological variation within clades

Answer 633

A

can easily be confused if trees are equally parsimonious

Answer 634

A

double decay branch support

Answer 635

A

similar long skinny snout- long thought to be convergent
molecular data shows sister species- snout derived- atavistic; skull table, braincase, jaws, hyoid, osteoderms, ribs, vertebrae, forelimbs, pelvis- reversals to fossil/outgroup traits

Answer 636

A

proteus with eyes restored
induced color adaptations by rearing on coloured soil
nuptial pads developed by forced water mating

Answer 637

A

seasonal hypertrophy in skin of male frogs in water living species, hormonally controlled, help male keep grip on female for mating in water

Answer 638

A

increase in the volume of an organ or tissue due to the enlargement of its component cells

Answer 639

A

cells remain approximately the same size but increase in number

Answer 640

A

modified salivary glands, venom kills prey, sometimes begins digestion

Answer 641

A

high fibre diet (hard to digest)- gizzard increases in size
low fibre- gizzard decreases in size
gizzard varies between and within species, gut readily remodelled

Answer 642

A

oxygen gain from fluid medium, CO2 dumped into fluid medium

Answer 643

A

movement of medium (water/air) either due to current or muscular action on a part of the animal, especially in relation to the gas exchange surface

Answer 644

A

skeletoventrical movements that cause ventillation near the gas exchange surface

Answer 645

A

gills, lungs, skin

Answer 646

A

majorly amphibians but to some degree in all animals, even a little bit in humans

Answer 647

A

loss of lungs
loss of larval stage
consequences in tongue projection

Answer 648

A

synapomorphy, ancestral character, anti bouyancy mechanism, changes in breathing- lose need for hyoid apparatus (movements of mouth floor)

Answer 649

A

salamanders lived in fast flowing streams- high O2

not the case now, lung loss is not a function of O2

Answer 650

A

direct development, in some species, no requirement of hyoid for suction feeding

Answer 651

A

ballistic tongue projection; hyoid apparatus projected out of mouth (tongue skeleton), retracted by muscles all the way back to hip; only possible b/c hyoid not needed for buccal pumping

Answer 652

A

fresh water 6.6 mL/L at 20ºC
Air 209 mL/L
increases with declining temperature and increasing turbulance

Answer 653

A

loose, baggy skin, increased SA (hellbender salamander, lake Titicaca frog), capilli growth- highly vascularized gas exchange surface (male hairy frog)

Answer 654

A

skin, lungs, gills

Answer 655

A

lungs very basal, secondarily lost in many groups, modified into swim bladders in many species- triple exaltation (breathing, buoyancy, sound?)

Answer 656

A

main aquatic gas exchange surface, fish, amphibians

pharyngeal arch- gill arch- skeletal support for the gill

Answer 657

A

primary lamelli, covered in secondary lamelli- these are the actual gas exchange surface

Answer 658

A

water flows across secondary lamella on gill arch, they pick up oxygen from water, and carry the oxygen to body tissues in the opposite direction of water flow

Answer 659

A

nonfeeding: through mouth– pharynx– gill arches– out
feeding: in sides of gill arches and back out, doesn’t enter body cavity, mouth, or pharynx

Answer 660

A

opening in sharks where water enters and can be forces out gill slits

Answer 661

A

bony flap covering gills, can be closed

Answer 662

A

take in water in buccal cavity with operculum closed– expand opercular cavity, pressure drops (same as feeding)– force water through opercular cavity– opercular valve open– water out

Answer 663

A

remain external, well developed

Answer 664

A

dictates direction of water flow through gills (tadpole), types 1,2,3,4

Answer 665

A

large gills- still ponds
small gills- fast flowing mountain stream
bigger fin on tail- pond
larger gas exchange surfaces

Answer 666

A

major gas exchange surface in air

gills have too many fine surfaces, would not be efficient in air

Answer 667

A

aquatic buccal pump- operated by hyoid apparatus
two-stroke buccal pump- 2 movements of mouth for each breath, sole dependence on buccal pump
exhalaion powered by hypaxial musculature
costal aspiration (loss of buccal pump, fully associated with musculature)

Answer 668

A

bringing in air via musculoskeletal system- sucking in air

Answer 669

A

drops floor of mouth to open mouth cavity (using buccal pump)– then glottic opens– air is forced out past air that has just been taken in– floor of mouth raised– air forced past lungs

Answer 670

A

breathe through nose– glottis closed– open nostril– lower floor of mouth– negative pressure– air enters oral cavity– open epiglottis– force air out nostril (exhale) by elastic recoiling of lung– close nostril– raise floor of mouth (second stroke)– force air into lung- set up elastic recoil

Answer 671

A

a thin, valvelike, cartilaginous structure that covers the glottis during swallowing, preventing the entrance of food and drink into the larynx

Answer 672

A

opening between the vocal cords at the upper part of the larynx

Answer 673

A

raise and lower floor- get rid of stale air in mouth

Answer 674

A

with nostrils closed- force air into vocal sacs rapidly- accoustic radiator- shift air back and forth between lungs and vocal sacs very rapidly

Answer 675

A

body musculature needed for locomotion, breathing?

volume moved out of lungs decreases rapidly with speed, can’t run fast for long- can’t breathe- trade-off

Answer 676

A

total air inhaled and exhaled in a minute

Answer 677

A

breathe and move with same musculature

Answer 678

A

accessory breathing apparatus- independent of body musculature so they can move air into lungs while running

Answer 679

A

buccal pump

Answer 680

A

gular pump

Answer 681

A

buccal oscillation

Answer 682

A

gular flutter (related to panting)

Answer 683

A

had a rib cage, perhaps breathing close to amniotes

Answer 684

A

exhalation

Answer 685

A

lung wall musculature contracts– pressure drops– lungs deflate, air pushed out– integument drawn inward to compensate for volume change— deformation stores elastic energy - negative pressure

Answer 686

A

tidal or unidirectional
dead space
vocalizations

Answer 687

A

bidirectional, humans

Answer 688

A

birds, more efficient O2 extraction

Answer 689

A

volume of air inhaled that does not take part in gas exchange, because it (1) remains in the conducting airways, (2) reaches alveoli not perfused

Answer 690

A

supply (an organ, tissue, or body) with a fluid, typically blood, by circulating it through blood vessels

Answer 691

A

CO2 retained, make buffered blood; Inspired air brought to T_b, increasing affinity of hemoglobin for O2, improving uptake; Particulate matter trapped on mucus, allowing removal; Inspired air is humidified, improving quality of airway mucus

Answer 692

A

vocal chords- in larynx, vibrate when air rushes past
syrinx- vocal organ of birds; at the base of trachea, produces sounds w/o vocal cords, sound is produced by membrane vibrations when air flows through

Answer 693

A

faveolar lung

alveolar lung

Answer 694

A

septate, reptiles, modified in birds, less compartmentalized, no alveoli, pockets open from central chamber

Answer 695

A

mammals, lots of alveoli pickets

Answer 696

A

ability for the lung to be inflated

Answer 697

A

gas exchange tissue

Answer 698

A

uni-cameral, multi-cameral, highly specialized vs. homogeneous, heterogeneous

Answer 699

A

large surface area, low compliance, mammal

Answer 700

A

large surface area, high compliance, dinosaurs, birds

Answer 701

A

amphibians, reptiles, large surface area, low compliance unless body elongated

Answer 702

A

single chambered, only complement gills and skin

Answer 703

A

multichambered shared by all amniotes, principle gas exchange site, key to conquering land

Answer 704

A

crocodiles, birds

Answer 705

A

lizard, snakes, tuatara

Answer 706

A

couldn’t maintain multi chambered heart due to miniaturization, multichamberedness is still ontogenetically visible

Answer 707

A

bending axis btw right/left lobes of lungs- bending to one side- one lobe reduces in volume, the other expands, air may be pumped back and forth btw, but little is moved in and out of the animal

Answer 708

A

bending axis is dorsal to thoracic cavity, sagittal ending changes thoracic volume- actively pumps air in and out of lungs for each locator cycle

Answer 709

A

vertical plane which passes from anterior to posterior, dividing the body into right and left halves

Answer 710

A

diaphragmatic muscles
large transverse process
bipedal locomotion
upright posture
bounding
lateral stability of vertebral column
endothermy

Answer 711

A

trunk vertebrae providing attachment sites fro axial muscles, independent of ribs; functional separation btw breathing and locomotion; characteristically large in Archosaurs

Answer 712

A

inhalation- ribs move forward and out, thorax expands, air sucked in
exhalation- ribs move backward and in, thorax compresses

Answer 713

A

forward and out

Answer 714

A

use muscles

inhalation: abdominal oblique, serratus
exhalation: transverse abdominus, pectoralis

Answer 715

A

craniolateral movement of ribs, have diaphragm, post hepatic septum behind liver, transversals

Answer 716

A

when pulled back, helps with breathing- ‘hepatic piston’, ‘pelvic aspiration’, muscles attached to pelvis

Answer 717

A

move liver forward- capable of breathing and walking and galloping

Answer 718

A

highly modified reptilian lungs, air sacs do not exchange gases, unidirectional lungs, extract 30-35% of O2 from air, adaptation for flight, sternum moves down for inspiration; abdominal/thoracic cavities not divided (no diaphragm)

Answer 719

A

thought to be unique, findings of unidirectional flow in iguana- new understandings

Answer 720

A

simple system, craniolateral movement, diaphragm, elastic recoil

Answer 721

A

mouth/nares– buccal cavity/nasal cavity– trachea– bronchi– bronchiole– alveoli– diaphragm

Answer 722

A

blood
closed circulatory system (vertebrates)
muscular heart
arteries, veins, capillary beds
portal veins

Answer 723

A

veins- to lungs

arteries- from lungs

Answer 724

A

one organ to another

Answer 725

A

aorta– arteries– arterioles– capillaries– venules– veins– vena cava

Answer 726

A

single ventricle, single aortic opening (amphibian)– single ventricle, two aortic openings (reptile)– fully divided heart (croc)

Answer 727

A

oxy and deoxy blood mix in ventricle

Answer 728

A

left: superioir vena cava, sinoatrial node, right atrium, inferior vena cava, tricuspid valave, right ventricle
right: left atrium, left pulmonary veins, bicuspid valve, left ventricle
middle: atrioventricular node, ventricular septum

Answer 729

A

1V, 1A, gills, tissues, back to heart; fish, O2 picked up from gills, carried to tissue, heart doesn’t receive very oxygenated blood- possible evolutionary development of lungs

Answer 730

A

archosaurs, mammals, lungfish, amphibians

Answer 731

A

heart– gills– air breathing organ AND tissues– back to heart from both; partly oxygenated blood coming in to lung- helps oxygenate heart; not completely oxygenated blood delivered to tissues

Answer 732

A

intermediate stage; 2A, 1V– gills AND air breathing organ– from gills– tissues– back to heart; tissues receive more oxygen than non divided system

Answer 733

A

1V, 2A in middle- out right side to skin (then tissues) AND tissues– then back to heart; out left side to lung and back to heart; fully oxygenated blood going to tissues and heart

Answer 734

A

2V, 2A: out RV– lung– RA– LV– tissues– RA

Answer 735

A

foramen of panizza- carries blood from LV (oxygenated) to RV to supply heart with oxygen

Answer 736

A

of, relating to, affecting, or occurring in the lungs; carried on by the lungs

Answer 737

A

part of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart

Answer 738

A

pertaining to the arteries that supply the heart tissues and originate in the root of the aorta

Answer 739

A

the main trunk of the arterial system, conveying blood from the left ventricle of the heart to all of the body except the lungs

Answer 740

A

superioir-carries deoxygenated blood from the upper half of the body to the heart’s right atrium
inferioir- carries deoxygenated blood from the lower half of the body into the right atrium of the heart

Answer 741

A

Lamnidae: moderate- partially endothermic
Osteichthyes, Tetrapods: slight, mostly spongey
Croc, bird, mammals: extensive, no spongey (compact myocardia)

Answer 742

A

non-croc reptiles- ventricle ‘partially divided’, some division of blood but potential for mixing; blood flow can be shunted past lung to avoid build up of CO2 in lungs (diving); R-L and L-R shunts

Answer 743

A

hole or a small passage which moves, or allows movement of, fluid from one part of the body to another

Answer 744

A

from right atrium to foramen of panizza (R-L shunt)

Answer 745

A

true endothermy, birds and mammals (Eutherms)

Answer 746

A

mainly derive body heat from external sources- radiation, conduction from the ground

Answer 747

A

mainly derive heat metabolically, also from external environment

Answer 748

A

T_b is variable (typically ectotherms)

Answer 749

A

single/stable T_b (typically endotherms)

Answer 750

A

not perfectly constant homeothermy, seen in endotherms

Answer 751

A

large variation, endo/ecto and poiko/homeo grid shows organisms in all quadrants; though only mole rats are poikilo endotherms

Answer 752

A

mammal- defend T_b against a gradient, maintains Tb independent of environment
snake- basically matches room T
note- real world is not thermally homogenous

Answer 753

A

snake can take advantage of microhabitats to maintain a relatively stable Tb ex. shade on a hot day, on a cold day, must be a thermoconformer

Answer 754

A

rapid excursion of Tb- maintain ~30º, plunge into water- drop to ~10º Tb; can’t maintain optimal T during feeding

Answer 755

A

relative performance vs. Tb; performance increases with Tb up to a point; performance curves reach optimum around same point for all functions; Tb is tightly spread around optimum T

Answer 756

A

ectotherms: -10 - 50º

active endotherm: ~30-45º

Answer 757

A

land: ~-10 - 40º
aquatic: 5-45º

Answer 758

A

water: 0.58 W/m K
air: 0.024 W/m K
soil w/ organics: 0.15-2
water is 3333X air, harder for aquatic animals to reach high Tb, less steep T gradients in water- homogenized

Answer 759

A

basal metabolic rate

minimal rate of energy expenditure per unit time by warm-blooded animals at rest

Answer 760

A

resting (turpor)- large drop in MR, lower Tb

resting MR < active MR, common in small birds/mammals

Answer 761

A

dunnart (marsupial) drops MR below BMR and Tb decreases overnight

Answer 762

A

ground squirrel; series of torpor events interrupted by arousal events- raise Tb to normal levels

Answer 763

A

bearded dragon lizard, under thermal stress exhibits panting behaviour to cool down (evaporation from moist inner mouth)

Answer 764

A

concealed: same T
exposed: head ~10º warmer- preferentially heat head first
differential body part heating

Answer 765

A

found to have dramatic difference in T in different body parts- can elevate T of tail by allowing more blood to tail- only in response to rattlesnakes (b/c rattlesnakes have heat sensing organs)- may intimidate the snakes

Answer 766

A

decrease temperature of wings via wing vein, and feet, to conserve core Tb during diving

Answer 767

A

vastly different in endotherm and ectotherm
ectotherms much much lower and nearly flat line with body body mass changes
endotherms- higher metabolism for smaller animals
metabolism is CAL/GH

Answer 768

A

SMR in ectotherms
BMR in endotherms
measured in thermoneutral zone (balancing gains and losses)

Answer 769

A

maximum aerobic metabolic rate- higher metabolic rates when active

Answer 770

A

ectotherm- Tb increases with increases air T
heat production is minimal, increases w/ increasing T
core T is a passive function of air T

Answer 771

A

at ~38ºC heat production is 3-4X larger than endotherm
decreasing air T = increasing heat production
internal T is largely independent of air T

Answer 772

A

fishes, amphibians, reptiles; environment heat source, usually variable Tb, behavioural thermoreg, narrow range of ambient conditions allowing thermoreg, lower energy needs- prolonged exposure to no food, O2, larger ability to take advantage of dormancy, small sizes, long slender shapes

Answer 773

A

dinosaurs(?), birds, mammals, some fishes
metabolic heat source, relatively constant Tb, mainly physiological thermoreg, wide range of ambient conditions allowing thermoreg, can live in cold places, activity in cold, enhanced aerobic scope for activity

Answer 774

A

leatherback: largest turtle in world, globular shape, big and round, thermal inertia, can go up to Arctic circle, maintains T 8-10º, muscular activity (swimming) generate heat which is maintained, also reduce circulations to flippers

Answer 775

A

maintain heat because of large size and low SA:V

Answer 776

A

green turtle- active tissues ~7º warmer than water T, heat retained due to large body size and insulation of shell, increases swimming ability, facilitate long distance migration

Answer 777

A

maintain constant T against T gradient- jacks up metabolic T by shivering, musculature activity (only during brooding)- endothermic characteristic

Answer 778

A

via red muscle; retain via counter current heat exchangers in brain, viscera, muscles

Answer 779

A

thermogenic organ (modified extra ocular muscle fibres, different muscles, convergence)

Answer 780

A

heat generated by slow-twitch myotomal muscle- transferred to cranial area via unique veins; contraction of extra ocular muscle also generates heat

Answer 781

A

six muscles that control movement of the eye. and one muscle that controls eyelid elevation

Answer 782

A

heating of part of body- especially brain facilitates expansion in cold waters- deep diving

Answer 783

A

or Tb1 vs. Tb2 (different body parts)

if slope ≠ 1 some type of thermoregulation is occurring

Answer 784

A

hydrodynamic body form, thunniform locomotion, negatively buoyant, dive to cold depths, swim constantly with partly open mouth, similar red muscle distribution, similar tendon arrangement, endothermy (26º core), counter-current heat exchange systems; all this and not closely related

Answer 785

A

confined primarily to the caudal fin, often fin is crescent-shaped (lunate) like a small wing and connected to the body by only a thin section called the caudal peduncle

Answer 786

A

retain generated heat

Answer 787

A

different isotherms for different populations, body adjusted to different mean temperature; homeothermic only up to certain point (30ºC in shrikes) then heterothermic

Answer 788

A

feeding rate, consistant w/ idea that torpor is a body saving mechanism; negative correlation- lower frequency of torpor with high feeding rate, maintain higher Tb when well fed

Answer 789

A

heterothermic when born; behaviour initiated by certain minimum T’s: biting, crawling 5-10º, shivering ~15º, wing flapping ~20º, flight ~30º

Answer 790

A

%Performance vs. Tb; can only show a narrow range of temperatures (endotherms don’t have large range of Tb)
ex. chick burst running speed- increasing, but only have data points for 30-45º

Answer 791

A

muscles have larger range of T (T_m), max performance is at the highest T, peak T, peak performance- looks more like a ‘traditional’ performance curve; can even plot muscle performance of endo/ectotherms together on one

Answer 792

A

specialists- higher peak performance than a way wider performance curve seen in a generalist
2 enzymes (1 high T acclimated, the other cold) expensive to maintain both at once, typically don't find both forms in one animal at one time

Answer 793

A

muscle movements create heat, body must be able to deal with high temperatures

Answer 794

A

two decreasing slopes, lower one - low conductance, higher one = high conductance; both converge at same T = Tb; a specific energy requirement will cross low conductance line at lower T than the high conductance line; balance heat loss?

Answer 795

A

nature of surrounding fluid
size
shape
nature of body surface

Answer 796

A

water conductance > air

tougher to be an endotherm in water

Answer 797

A

SA:V

bigger animals lose heat less slowly

Answer 798

A

SA:V

rounder animals maintain heat better

Answer 799

A

mammals- air, feathers, trap air btw body and surface of coat, which is a good insulator

Answer 800

A

insulating values shift with season, especially in larger mammals; having fur is not adequate to initiate endothermy- important but need the other equipment too (internal)

Answer 801

A

positive correlation
low end- squirrels
high end- wolf, polar bear

Answer 802

A

if ambient temperature drops- switch from high to low conductance to conserve energy; can be done by changing erection of hairs (in fur)

Answer 803

A

muscular contraction- physical activity, shivering
non-shivering thermogenesis
metabolism of viscera

Answer 804

A

using brown-adipose tissue, particularly well developed in young mammals

Answer 805

A

metabolism of internal organs; 70% of heat production in mammals at rest is generated by internal organs; large internal organs in mammals

Answer 806

A

zone of ambient T’s an animal can maintain Tb with minimal energy, complicated by conductance, BMR, and critical T’s; T_lc - T_uc

Answer 807

A

T_lc lower critical- 4 possible locations: High/low BMR and high/low conductance- tightest interval is low BMR and high conductance, then high BMR high conduct., low BMR low conduct., high BMR low conduct.
high BMR, low conduct., gives widest interval on Tb but costs more E

Answer 808

A

higher Tb
higher conductance
lower BMR

Answer 809

A

torpid metabolic rate

Answer 810

A

shows that even in turpor thermal neutral zone is defended

Answer 811

A

higher resting metabolic rate- 5-10X ectotherms
higher maximum metabolic aerobic respiration
sustained activity is vastly higher, sprinting speed similar

Answer 812

A

higher aerobic scope and endurance- more red fibres in skeletal muscle; more effective oxygen delivery; turbinate bones; erect posture, parasagittal gait; increased mitochondrial SA, leakier plasma membrane

Answer 813

A

more vascularized lung, higher ventilation rate, 4-chambered heart; birds and mammals arrived at this independently (convergence)

Answer 814

A

larger SA in mitochon.- higher aerobic metabolism

plasma membrane leakier to Na, K, increased action potential, muscles, osmolarity– higher activity level

Answer 815

A

thin, wafer like structures, covered in moist vascularized mucosa; cool air in– past mucosa– moisture lost to mucosa– breath out– air is warmer than trniate– water is given back to mucosa– helps retain water that would otherwise be lost to environment

Answer 816

A

problems in dry environments (deserts)- potential for loss of water with each breath out

Answer 817

A

can’t tell turbinates, not preserved

bone histology can’t read much into- large ranges in endo and ectotherms

Answer 818

A

heart well vascularized, more powerful, generate higher blood pressures, can deliver blood to distal body parts when animal is in upright position

Answer 819

A

it is not just one character it is a whole suite of characters

Answer 820

A

high BMR, Tb higher than Tambient, constant core Tb, high MAMR (and aerobic scope)

Answer 821

A

constant core Tb, high MAMR

Answer 822

A

The ratio of the maximal aerobic metabolic rate to the basal metabolic rate, typically in the range of 3–10; range of possible oxidative metabolism from rest to maximal exercise

Answer 823

A

niche expansion

maintenance of high brain T

Answer 824

A

thermoregulation first then aerobic capacity

Aerobic capacity first

Answer 825

A

physiological, ecological, brain size, growth of young

Answer 826

A

sustained activity, juvenile provision

Answer 827

A

correlated progression, came about by small steps; reptilians became progressively mor mammalian, gradually accumulate synapomorphies; parallel changes in different lineages (even the ones that don’t lead to mammals); integrate changes, a few at a time

Answer 828

A

Crandell et al., 2014; claw characters significantly different btw arboreal and non-arboreal lizards; arboreal higher and longer, decreased curvature, wider claw tip angles; toped size and claw length/height tightly correlated

Answer 829

A

allows animal to move across smooth substrates with little difficulty (leaves, smooth bark); microscopic hair-like structures on ventral pad (setae); key innovation in anoles- niche expansion, radiation, diversification

Answer 830

A

clawed can occupy larger portion of habitat

Answer 831

A

interlocking, friction
interlocking: surface irreg. > claw tip diameter
mechanical interlocking stronger, advantagous to decrease size of tip

Answer 832

A

highest- climbers
med- perching
lowest- ground dwelling

Answer 833

A

Witmer, 2001; have enromous, complicated bony nasal apertures; fleshy nostril now thought to be rostral (forward); consequences for nasal air streaming, physiological parameters, circumolar odorants

Answer 834

A

olfaction, respiration, manipulation, behavioural display, thermal physiology

Answer 835

A

osseous nasal aperture

Answer 836

A

extant phylogenetic bracket

Answer 837

A

tradition caudal position would be out of main airstream- important in convective heat loss, facilitated evaporative cooling, intermittent countercurrent heart exchange, heat and water balance, selective brain temperature regulation

Answer 838

A

Holland, 2013; birds able to return to known goal from a place they’ve never been; presents conflicting findings

Answer 839

A

birds able to return to a goal after being displaced (even artificially) to an unknown area

Answer 840

A

ability of an animal to return to original location after diplacement to a site in unfamiliar territory, without access to familiar landmarks, goal emanating cues, or info about the displacement route

Answer 841

A

ability of an animal to navigate to a specific breeding or wintering area following displacement

Answer 842

A

determine position with respect to the goal 2. determine direction to a goal; only conducted in adult birds (experience)

Answer 843

A

using sun, star positions; studies find consitancy with sun compass but not sun navigation

Answer 844

A

olfactory deprivation disrupts return home; may associate odours with wind directions; lack of repeatability; without odours may use other cues

Answer 845

A

inability to perceive odor or a lack of functioning olfaction

Answer 846

A

magnetic field stronger at poles- potential to indicate latitudinal position, coarse scale; skepticism- no sense organ- earths magnetic field can prevade all tissue

Answer 847

A

electron spin states affected by strong magnetic fields- radical pair molecule- photoreceptive- perceived through the eyes- may involve ZENK gene, cluster-N, night vision

Answer 848

A

cryptochrome- blue light receptor, long-lived radical pairs

Answer 849

A

multi doman magnetite- no magnetization, single domain- permanent magnetic moment, super paramagnetic- fluctuating magnetic moment; bacteria contain single domain, magnetite widely present in organisms; also only found in adults; magnetic field detected by trigeminal nerve

Answer 850

A

Martin and Carter, 2013; lots of fish and amphibians reproduce terrestrially despite absence of amniotic egg; eggs- smaller, simple chorionic membrane; disadvantage- desiccation, novel predators; arisen independently in different lineages

Answer 851

A

much smaller, more dependent on environmental conditions, simple chorion membrane

Answer 852

A

higher T, higher O2, diffusion of O2 more rapid in air- avoid hypoxia, avoid aquatic predators

Answer 853

A

deformed, death, hatch early

Answer 854

A

less aquaporin channels, amyloid fibres in the egg envelope, shape, shaded under a boulder, in a burrow, buried in damp sand

Answer 855

A

choice of oviposition site, guarding eggs, slashing them, exchange oxygen, transport tadpoles to water

Answer 856

A

environmental cued hatching

Answer 857

A

decreased O2 levels, mechanical agitation of seawater, disturbance by snakes or wasps, presence of disease

Answer 858

A

yolk, offspring size, time to hatching, maternal size, habitat quality, O2 availability, duration of spawning, geographic location, parental care

Answer 859

A

ability to metamorphose without feeding, requires a minimum egg size

Answer 860

A

developmental plasticity

Answer 861

A

Type 1: conservative constitutive, Type 2: ECH early alert, 3: cautious constitutive, 4: ECH by parental involvement, 5: ECH ready and waiting, ECH ready and progressing, 7: precocious or direct development, 8: true diapauses

Answer 862

A

delay in development in response to regularly and recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions, physiological state of dormancy with very specific initiating and inhibiting conditions

Answer 863

A

any structure capable of being propagated or acting as an agent of reproduction

Answer 864

A

Hale, 2014; changes in roles of morphology between stages of life history; larvae zebrafish use pectoral fins to exchange fluid near body for cutaneous respiration; musculature and positioning of fin change

Answer 865

A

adding cells, tissues, structures, change in body size, physics of movement, behaviour, scaling of body elements (allometry), motor control, ecological factors

Answer 866

A

high aspect ratio (wing shape)- improved cruising performance; low aspect ratio (rounded)- high-acceleration starts and maneuvers, improved hovering stability

Answer 867

A

hatch 48-72hr post-fertilization, 3.1-3.5mm, yolk-stage -several days, pectoral fin bud forms ~24hr post-fertilization, 48h- fin elongate w/ skeleton

Answer 868

A

larvae use pectoral finds pull fluid distant from the body towards the trunk and move fluid in the boundary layer away from the side of the body to increase O2

Answer 869

A

perceive environment as hypoxic

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Chordates Part II Flashcards

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