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Kaplan MCAT Biology > The Cell > Flashcards

The Cell Flashcards

1
Q

The four basic tenets of cell theory

A
  1. All living things are composed of ells
  2. The cell is the basic functional unit of life
  3. Cells arise only from pre-exsisting cells
  4. Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA; this genetic material is passed on from parent to daughter cell
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2
Q

Are viruses considered living things? Why or why not?

A

They are not considered living things because they are acellular, cannot reproduce without the assistance of a host cell, and may contain RNA as their genetic material

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3
Q

Eukaryotes

A

They have membrane-bound organelles, a nucleus, and may form multicellular organisms

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4
Q

Cell membrane & membranes of organelles

A

They contain phospholipids, which organize to form hydrophilic interior and exterior surfaces with a hydrophobic core

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5
Q

Cytosol

A

Suspends the organelles and allows diffusion of molecules throughout the cell

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6
Q

Nucleus

A

Contains DNA organized into chromosomes

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7
Q

Nuclear membrane/envelope

A

A double membrane that surrounds the nucleus and contains nuclear pores

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8
Q

Nuclear pores

A

Facilitate two-way exchange of materials between the nucleus and cytosol

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9
Q

Genes

A

DNA is organized into these coding regions

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10
Q

Nucleolus

A

A subsection of the nucleus in which rRNA is synthesized

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11
Q

Mitochondria

A

Contain an outer and inner membrane; can divide independently of the nucleus via binary fission; they can trigger apoptosis by releasing mitochondrial enzymes into the cytoplasm

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12
Q

Outer membrane of the mitochondria

A

Forms a barrier with the cytosol

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13
Q

Inner membrane of the mitochondria

A

Folded into cristae and contains enzymes for the ETC

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14
Q

Intermembrane space

A

Space between the outer and inner membranes of the mitochondria

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15
Q

Mitochondrial matrix

A

Space inside the inner mitochondrial membrane

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16
Q

Lysosomes

A

Contain hydrolytic enzymes that can break down substances ingested by endocytosis and cellular waste products; when these enzymes are released, autolysis of the cell occur

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17
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A

A series of interconnected membranes and is continuous with the nuclear envelope

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18
Q

Rough ER (RER)

A

Studded with ribosomes, which permit translation of proteins destined for secretion

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19
Q

Smooth ER (SER)

A

Used for lipid synthesis and detoxification

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20
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Consists of stacked membrane-bound sacs in which cellular products can be modified, packaged, and directed to specific cellular locations

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21
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Contain hydrogen peroxide and can break down very long chain fatty acids via beta oxidation; they also participate in phospholipid synthesis and the pentose phosphate pathway

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22
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Provides stability and rigidity to the overall structure of the cell, while also providing transport pathways for molecules within the cell

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23
Q

Microfilaments

A

Composed of actin; they provide structural protection from the cell and can cause muscle contraction through interactions with myosin; they also help form the cleavage furrow during cytokinesis in mitosis

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24
Q

Microtubules

A

Composed of tubulin; they create pathways for motor proteins like chines and dyne to cary vesicles; they also contribute to the structure of cilia and flagella

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25
Q

9 + 2 structure

A

In eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are organized into nine pairs of microtubules in a ring with two microtubules at the center

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26
Q

Centrioles

A

Found in centrosomes and are involved in microtubule organization in the mitotic spindle

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27
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

Involved in cell-cell adhesion or maintenance of the integrity of the cytoskeleton; they help anchor organelles

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28
Q

Epithelial tissues

A

Cover the body and line its cavities, protecting against pathogen invasion and desiccation; some absorb or secrete substances, or participate in sensation

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29
Q

Parenchyma

A

In most organs, epithelial cells form this, which are the functional parts of the organ

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30
Q

Polarization of epithelial cells

A

They may have one side facing a lumen or the outside world, and the other side facing blood vessels and structural cells

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31
Q

Types of epithelia (3) Simple epithelia

A

Simple (have one layer)
Stratified (have many layers)
Pseudostratified (appear to have multiple layers because of differences in cell heights, but actually only have one layer)

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32
Q

Eukaryote shape classifications (3)

A 
Cuboidal cells (cube-shaped)
Columnar cells (long and narrow)
Squamous cells (flat and scale-like)
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33
Q

Connective tissues

A

Support the body and provide a framework for epithelial cells

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34
Q

Stroma

A

In most organs, connective tissues form this, or support structure by secreting materials to form an extracellular matrix

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35
Q

Connective tissues (6)

A 
Bone
Cartilage
Tendons
Ligaments
Adipose tissue
Blood
36
Q

Prokaryotes

A

Do not contain membrane-bound organelles; they organize their genetic material in a single circular molecule of DNA concentrated in the nuclei region

37
Q

Archaea

A

Often extremophiles, living in harsh environments (high temperature, high salinity, no light) and often using alternate sources of energy, like chemosynthesis

38
Q

Similarities of archaea to eukaryotes (3)

A
  1. Start translation with methionine
  2. Similar RNA polymerases
  3. Histones
39
Q

Similarities of archaea to bacteria (2)

A
  1. Single circular chromosome

2. Divide by binary fission or budding

40
Q

Bacteria

A

Have many similar structures to eukaryotes, and have complex relationships with humans, including symbiosis and pathogenesis

41
Q

Eukarya

A

The only non-prokaryotic domain

42
Q

Bacteria shape classifications (3)

A

Cocci (spherical bacteria)
Bacilli (rod-shaped bacteria)
Spirilli (spiral-shaped bacteria)

43
Q

Obligate aerobes

A

Bacteria that require oxygen for metabolism

44
Q

Obligate anaerobes

A

Bacteria that cannot survive in oxygen-containing environments and can only carry out anaerobic metabolism

45
Q

Facultative anaerobes

A

Bacteria that can survive in environments with or without oxygen and will toggle metabolic processes based on the environment

46
Q

Aerotolerant anaerobes

A

Bacteria that cannot use oxygen for metabolism, but can survive in an oxygen-containing environment

47
Q

What is the bacterial envelope formed from and what do they control?

A

The cell wall and cell membrane; together, they control the movement of solutes into and out of the cell

48
Q

Gram-positive bacteria

A

Turn purple from Gram staining with a crystal violet stain

Have a thick cell wall composed of peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid

49
Q

Gram-negative bacteria

A

Turn pink-red from Gram counterstaining with safranin

Hav a thin cell wall composed of peptidoglycan and an outer membrane containing phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides

50
Q

Chemotaxis

A

Moving in response to chemical stimuli

51
Q

Bacterial flagella composition

A

Contain a filament composed of flagellin, a basal body that anchors and rotates the flagellum, and a hook that connects the two

52
Q

How do prokaryotes carry out the ETC?

A

Using the cell membrane

53
Q

How do prokaryotic ribosomes differ from eukaryotic ribosomes?

A

They are smaller (30S and 50S, rather than 40S and 60S)

54
Q

Binary fission

A

Prokaryotes multiply this way, in which the chromosome replicates while the cell grows in size, until the cell wall begins to grown inward along the midline of the cell and divides it into two identical daughter cells

55
Q

Plasmids

A

Can carry extrachromosal material; may contain antibiotic resistance genes or virulence factors

56
Q

Episomes

A

Plasmids that can integrate into the genome

57
Q

What process increases bacterial diversity?

A

Bacterial genetic recombination

58
Q

Bacterial transformation

A

The acquisition of genetic material from the environment, which can be integrated into the bacterial genome

59
Q

Bacterial conjugation

A

The transfer of genetic material from one bacterial to another across a conjugation bridge

60
Q

How can a plasmid or portion of the genome in bacteria be transferred?

A

A plasmid can be transferred from F+ cells to F- cells

A portion of the genome can be transferred from an Hfr cell to a recipient

61
Q

Bacterial transduction

A

The transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another using a bacteriophage as a vector

62
Q

Transposons

A

Genetic elements that can insert into or remove themselves from the genome

63
Q

Bacterial growth pattern

A

Lag phase > log phase > stationary phase > death phase

64
Q

Lag phase

A

The bacteria adapt to new local conditions during this time

65
Q

Exponential (log) phase

A

Growth increases exponentially during this time

66
Q

Stationary phase

A

As resources are reduced, growth levels off during this time

67
Q

Death phase

A

As resources become insufficient, bacteria undergo this phase

68
Q

What does a virus contain?

A

Genetic material, a protein coat (capsid), and sometimes a lipid-containing envelope

69
Q

What is meant by viruses being obligate intracellular parasites?

A

They cannot survive and replicate outside of a host cell

70
Q

Virions

A

Individual virus particles

71
Q

Bacteriophages

A

Viruses that target bacteria

72
Q

What does a bacteriophage contain?

A

It contains a tail sheath and tail fibers

73
Q

Tail sheath

A

Injects the genetic material into a bacterium

74
Q

Tail fibers

A

Allow the bacteriophage to attach to the host cell

75
Q

What are viral genomes made of?

A

DNA or RNA that may be single- or double-stranded

76
Q

Single-stranded RNA virus characteristics

A

May be positive sense or negative sense

77
Q

Positive sense ssRNA

A

Can be translated by the host cell

78
Q

Negative sense ssRNA

A

A complementary strand must be synthesized using RNA replicase, which can then be translated

79
Q

Retroviruses

A

Contain an ssRNA genome, to which a complementary DNA strand is made using reverse transcriptase; the DNA can then integrated into the genome

80
Q

How do viruses infect cells?

A

By attaching to specific receptors, and then (1) either fusing with the plasma membrane, being brought in by endocytosis, or (2) injecting their genome into the cell

81
Q

How do viruses reproduce?

A

By replicating and translating genetic material using the host cell’s ribosomes, tRNA, amino acids, and enzymes

82
Q

How are viral progeny released?

A

Through cell death, lysis, or extrusion

83
Q

Lytic cycle (bacteriophages)

A

The bacteriophage produces massive numbers of new visions until the cell lyses; bacteria in this phase are termed virulent

84
Q

Lysogenic cycle (bacteriophages)

A

The virus integrated into the host genome as a pro-virus or prophage, which can then reproduce along with the cell; the provirus then leaves the genome in response to a stimulus at some later time and enters the lytic cycle

85
Q

Prions

A

Infectious proteins that trigger misfiling of other protein, usually converting an alpha-helical structure to a beta-pleated sheet; this decreases the solubility and degradability of the misfiled protein

86
Q

Viroids

A

Plan pathogens that are small circles of complementary RNA that can turn off genes, resulting in metabolic and structural derangements of the cell and, potentially, cell death

Kaplan MCAT Biology (12 decks)

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