3rd Exam Flashcards by Sauda Uddin

work by reducing the production of
stomach acid. Another type is H2 receptor
antagonists, which block the action of
histamine on the stomach cells, thereby
reducing acid secretion.

proton pump inhibitors (PPIs),

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Common side effects of PPI

headache, diarrhea, and nausea

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works by slowing down muscle
contractions in the intestines

Loperamide

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has an antimicrobial effect that
helps reduce inflammation in the gut.

bismuth subsalicylate

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act on opioid receptors in the
intestines, slowing down peristalsis and
reducing bowel movements. This helps to
increase water

Opioids such as loperamide and diphenoxylate
with atropine

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should not be used in
patients with a history of seizures or those who
are prone to developing them. This medication
can lower the seizure threshold, increasing the
risk of seizures occurring.

should be used with
caution in patients with Parkinson’s disease or other movement disorders. It can worsen these
conditions by blocking dopamine receptors in
the brain.

may cause
drowsiness or dizziness. Patients should be
advised to avoid activities that require
alertness, such as driving or operating
machinery, until they know how the medication
affects them.

metoclopramide

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is a medication
commonly used for preventing gastric ulcers
caused by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs). Its mechanism of action involves
increasing mucus production in the stomach
lining and reducing acid secretion.

Misoprostol (Cytotec)

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has multiple indications for
use including acute diarrhea, chronic diarrhea
associated with IBD or IBS, traveler’s diarrhea,
and management of ostomy surgeries.

Loperamide HCl

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One of the main indications for ________
is in the management of chemotherapy-induced
nausea and vomiting (CINV).

Ondansetron

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often cause severe nausea and vomiting
in cancer patients, which can significantly
impact their quality of life.

Chemotherapy
drugs

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works by blocking the action of serotonin in the gut
and central nervous system, thereby reducing
the sensation of nausea.

Ondansetron

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Another indication for ____is in the
prevention of postoperative nausea and
vomiting (PONV). Surgical procedures can
trigger an inflammatory response that leads to
gastrointestinal disturbances.

Ondansetron

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mechanism of action involves
selectively targeting and inhibiting proton
pumps in order to reduce gastric acid
production. This medication has proven to be
highly effective in managing various
gastrointestinal conditions and providing
much-needed relief for patients suffering from
these ailments.

omeprazole’s

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One of the most common side effects of
sulfasalazine

gastrointestinal distress.

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This
can manifest as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and
abdominal pain. These symptoms are usually
mild and transient but can be bothersome for
some individuals. Additionally, sulfasalazine
may cause allergic reactions in certain individuals, ranging from mild skin rashes to
severe anaphylaxis.

gastrointestinal distress.

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Best time to administer sucralfate (Carafate)

one hour before breakfast and two tablets
at bedtime.

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work by absorbing water
and swelling up in order to increase stool
volume and softness. They also provide soluble
fibers that promote fermentation by gut bacteria
and production of SCFAs. Ultimately, these
mechanisms help alleviate constipation and
improve overall bowel function.

bulking laxatives

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play a crucial role in emptying the
bowel before a colonoscopy. They work by
increasing the frequency and consistency of
bowel movements, effectively removing any
fecal matter that may obstruct the view during
the procedure.

Laxatives

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The most commonly used
laxative _____which is mixed with water and
consumed orally.

polyethylene glycol
(PEG),

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effective treatment for constipation.

lactulose

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used to treat
hepatic encephalopathy, a condition that occurs
when the liver is unable to remove toxins from
the blood.
It helps reduce ammonia
levels in the blood by promoting its excretion
through the stool.

Lactulose

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a laxative that works by increasing the
amount of water in the stool, making it easier to
pass.
It is commonly used for bowel
preparation before certain medical procedures
or surgeries. It can also be prescribed for
chronic constipation.

polyethylene glycol (PEG)

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a natural fiber that absorbs water in
the intestines, making the stool softer and
easier to pass. It is often found in
over-the-counter laxatives and can be taken in
powder or capsule form

Psyllium

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works by increasing the amount of water
in the stool, making it softer and easier to pass.
It is available as a liquid or tablet.

Docusate,

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a stimulant laxative that works by irritating the lining of the intestines, causing them to contract and move stool along more quickly. It is available as tablets or liquid extracts.

Senna

a saline laxative that draws water into the intestines to soften the stool and stimulate bowel movements.

magnesium citrate

works is by reducing hepatic glucose production. It inhibits the enzyme gluconeogenesis, which is responsible for the synthesis of glucose in the liver.

metformin

enhancing insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues such as muscle and adipose tissue.

Metformin

Metformin activates an enzyme called ______ which plays a crucial role in cellular energy homeostasis.

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK),

Activation of AMPK leads to _____ uptake by muscle cells and improved insulin sensitivity.

Increased glucose

affects intestinal absorption of glucose, leading to decreased postprandial blood sugar levels. It delays the absorption of carbohydrates from the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in reduced glucose spikes after meals.

metformin

metformin has been shown to have other beneficial actions such as

reducing inflammation and improving lipid profiles.

the first-line therapy for Type 2 DM. It works by reducing glucose production in the liver and improving insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues.

Metformin

stimulate insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells, thereby lowering blood sugar levels.

Sulfonylureas

enhance insulin sensitivity in muscle and adipose tissue.

Thiazolidinediones

increase incretin hormone levels, which stimulate insulin release and inhibit glucagon secretion. These drugs also slow down gastric emptying, leading to decreased appetite and weight loss

DPP-4 inhibitors

generally well-tolerated but can cause gastrointestinal upset.

Metformin

may cause hypoglycemia and weight gain

Sulfonylureas

have been associated with fluid retention and an increased risk of heart failure.

Thiazolidinediones

delay the absorption of glucose from the small intestine. When taken before meals, acarbose inhibits alpha-glucosidase in the gut, preventing the rapid breakdown and absorption of carbohydrates. This leads to a slower release of glucose into the bloodstream and reduces postprandial hyperglycemia.

alpha-glucosidase inhibitors

Best time to take prednisone

with breakfast so it does not upset your stomach. Taking prednisolone in the morning

One of the primary symptoms of Diabetes Insipidus is

polydipsia, or excessive thirst.

their ability to increase basal metabolic rate. They stimulate oxygen consumption and heat production in almost all tissues, thereby promoting energy expenditure. Additionally, they enhance protein synthesis and degradation, regulate carbohydrate metabolism, and influence lipid metabolism.

thyroid hormones

One of the most common side effects of intranasal vasopressin is

nasal discomfort

valuable medication used in managing hyperthyroidism caused by Graves' disease. Its ability to inhibit thyroid hormone synthesis makes it an effective tool in normalizing thyroid function and alleviating associated symptoms. However, due to potential side effects and risks involved with its use, patients should be closely monitored throughout their treatment journey

propylthiouracil (PTU)

essential medications that address specific medical needs.

desmopressin acetate and levothyroxine

aids in managing conditions related to water balance and bleeding disorders

Desmopressin

crucial for individuals with an underactive thyroid gland

levothyroxine

has been widely studied and proven to be effective in managing these conditions. In patients with diabetes insipidus, it helps regulate water balance in the body by increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys. This results in decreased urine output and prevents dehydration. has shown promising results in treating nocturnal enuresis, commonly known as bedwetting, particularly in children. By reducing nighttime urine production, it helps individuals achieve dry nights and improves their quality of sleep. does come with potential side effects. These can include headache, nausea, nasal congestion, and even hyponatremia if not used correctly or monitored closly.

Desmopressin Acetate (DDAVP)

has revolutionized the treatment of erectile dysfunction since its discovery. Its accidental finding during clinical trials for angina paved the way for an effective oral therapy that has improved countless lives

Sildenafil (Viagra)

patients taking Glucotrol should avoid consuming sugary foods and beverages. These include candies, sodas, fruit juices, and desserts high in sugar content. Consuming these items can cause a sudden spike in blood sugar levels, counteracting the effects of the medication. Additionally, patients should be cautious when consuming high-carbohydrate meals or snacks. Foods such as white bread, pasta, rice, and potatoes are quickly converted into glucose by the body. This can lead to a rapid increase in blood sugar levels and potentially reduce the efficacy

Glucotrol.

is an intermediate-acting insulin that provides a longer duration of action compared to regular insulin. It is often taken twice a day to provide basal (background) coverage and help maintain stable blood sugar levels throughout the day.

Humulin NPH insulin

work by blocking the action of aldosterone in the distal tubules of the kidneys. They are indicated for patients with hypertension or heart failure who are at risk for hypokalemia. Common side effects include hyperkalemia, gynecomastia in males, and menstrual irregularities in females. Nursing interventions include monitoring potassium levels and educating patients about dietary restrictions.

Potassium-sparing diuretics

act on the ascending loop of Henle to inhibit sodium reabsorption. They are used to treat edema associated with heart failure or renal disease. Side effects may include hypokalemia, ototoxicity, and dehydration. Nurses should monitor electrolyte levels and encourage adequate fluid intake.

Loop diuretics a

work by inhibiting sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubules. They are prescribed for hypertension or edema caused by heart failure or renal disease. Adverse effects may include hypokalemia, hyperglycemia, and hyperuricemia. Nurses should monitor electrolyte levels and educate patients about potential interactions with other medications.

Thiazide diuretics

increase osmotic pressure in the glomerular filtrate to promote water excretion. They are used to reduce intracranial pressure or intraocular pressure in conditions such as cerebral edema or glaucoma. Side effects may include fluid overload and electrolyte imbalances. Nurses should closely monitor fluid balance and assess for signs of dehydration.

Osmotic diuretics

found in both the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). They are named after nicotine because they can be activated by this compound. are responsible for mediating the effects of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement and cognitive function.

Nicotinic receptors

only found in the PNS. They get their name from muscarine, a toxin derived from mushrooms that can activate these receptors. regulate various bodily functions such as heart rate, smooth muscle contraction, glandular secretions, and cognitive processes.

muscarinic receptors

respond to norepinephrine and epinephrine (adrenaline). These receptors are mainly located on smooth muscles lining blood vessels. causes vasoconstriction leading to increased blood pressure.

alpha-adrenergic receptors

respond to norepinephrine and epinephrine but have different effects compared to alpha-adrenergic receptors. Beta-receptors are found in various tissues including the heart, lungs, liver, and skeletal muscles. It Activation leads to increased heart rate, bronchodilation (opening up of airways), glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen), lipolysis (breakdown of fats), among other effects

beta-receptors

controls “fight-or-flight” responses. In other words, this system prepares the body for strenuous physical activity. The events that we would expect to occur within the body to allow this to happen do, in fact, occur.

sympathetic system

regulates “rest and digest” functions. It does so by accelerating heart rate and respiration, increasing muscle blood flow and tension, dilating pupils and suppressing digestion.

parasympathetic system

are a class of drugs commonly used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs)

a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive decline of cognitive function, memory loss, and behavioral changes. The primary mechanism of action of AChEIs lies in their ability to inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Alzheimer's disease (AD)

stimulants work by increasing the levels of certain chemicals in the brain that help regulate attention and behavior.

CNS

One of the most commonly prescribed CNS stimulants for ADHD is

methylphenidate,

sold under brand names like Ritalin and Concerta. helps improve focus, reduce impulsivity, and control hyperactivity.

Methylphenidate

Another widely used CNS stimulant for ADHD treatment is amphetamine-based medications like

Adderall and Vyvanse.

enhance attention span, decrease restlessness, and promote self-control.

Adderall and Vyvanse.

The most commonly prescribed CNS stimulant for narcolepsy is

modafinil.

works by increasing dopamine levels in the brain, which helps to promote wakefulness.

Modafinil

involves their ability to enhance the release and inhibit the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine.

CNS stimulants

involves their ability to enhance the release and inhibit the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine.

CNS stimulants

blocks the reuptake transporters responsible for removing dopamine and norepinephrine from the synapse. By inhibiting reuptake, more neurotransmitters remain in the synaptic cleft for a longer duration, thereby enhancing their effects on target neurons.

Methylphenidate,

work by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters in the brain. These neurotransmitters play a crucial role in regulating attention, focus, and impulse control. By enhancing their activity, CNS stimulants help individuals with ADHD to improve their ability to concentrate and reduce impulsive behavior.

methylphenidate and amphetamine

alleviate the symptoms associated with ADHD. It helps individuals with ADHD to improve their focus, reduce impulsivity, and control hyperactivity.

methylphenidate (ritalin)

acts on the central nervous system, producing various physiological and psychological effects.

Caffeine

caffeine stimulates the release of neurotransmitters such as ______ These chemicals enhance mood, increase focus and attention span, and improve cognitive performance. Many individuals rely on coffee to kick-start their day or stay awake during long hours of work or study.

dopamine and norepinephrine

Benzodiazepines, such as____ widely prescribed due to their effectiveness in reducing anxiety symptoms. They act quickly, providing immediate relief from symptoms such as excessive worry, restlessness, and irritability. However, it is important to note that these medications should only be used on a short-term basis due to their potential for dependence and addiction.

diazepam and alprazolam

highly effective in managing anxiety disorders,

benzodiazepines

class of drugs that act as central nervous system depressants, primarily used for their sedative and hypnotic effects. The primary mechanism of action of it involves enhancing the inhibitory effects of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain.

Barbiturates

an inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neuronal activity by binding to specific receptors on nerve cells.

GABA

types of CNS depressants used as anesthetics,

barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and opioids.

widely used for many years due to their rapid onset and short duration of action. They work by enhancing the inhibitory effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter that reduces neuronal activity in the brain. However, their use has declined in recent years due to potential side effects and the availability of safer alternatives.

thiopental sodium,

commonly used as anesthetics due to their sedative and amnesic properties. They work by binding to specific receptors in the brain that enhance GABA's inhibitory effects. have a more favorable safety profile compared to barbiturates but can still cause respiratory depression and other adverse effects.

Benzodiazepines

potent analgesics that can be used alone or in combination with other anesthetics. They act on opioid receptors in the central nervous system to produce pain relief and sedation. Opioids carry a risk of respiratory depression and addiction but remain essential for managing acute pain during surgery.

Opioids, such as fentanyl and morphine,

advanced agents such as nitrous oxide and chloroform

Anesthetic agent

commonly used today due to their rapid onset and quick recovery times. These agents are delivered through a mask or endotracheal tube, allowing for precise control over the depth of anesthesia.

Inhalational anesthetics like sevoflurane and desflurane

often associated with pleasure and reward. It is involved in motivation, learning, and movement control.

Dopamine

Dopamine imbalances have been linked to conditions such as

Parkinson's disease and addiction.

acts as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone. It helps regulate attention, alertness, and mood. Imbalances of this levels can contribute to anxiety disorders or depression.

Norepinephrine

known as the "feel-good" neurotransmitter. It plays a vital role in regulating mood, sleep patterns, appetite, and social behavior. It imbalances have been implicated in depression and anxiety disorders.

Serotonin

an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps calm down brain activity by reducing neuronal excitability. It plays a crucial role in promoting relaxation and reducing anxiety.

GABA

GABA imbalances have been associated with conditions like

epilepsy or insomnia.

3rd Exam Flashcards

(95 cards)