4. The Self, Identity, Emotion, and Personality

Question 1

What are 3 important aspects of the self?

Answer 1

1) self-understanding and understanding others
2) self-esteem and self-concept
3) self-regulation

Question 2

What is self-understanding?

Answer 2

The individual’s cognitive representation of the self. Not completely internal but rather interacts with sociocultural experiences. It’s a social cognitive construction.

Question 3

What is self-understanding in adolescence characterized by? (6)

Answer 3

1) abstraction and idealism
2) differentiation
3) fluctuating self & contradictions within the self (not coherent and integrated yet)
4) social comparison
5) self consciousness
6) self protection

Question 4

How do adolescents show that they think in more abstract and idealistic ways?

Answer 4

In the way they describe themselves.
Abstract – “I am indecisive and I don’t know who I am”
Idealistic – “I am a naturally sensitive person who really cares about people’s feelings”
Most also distinguish between their real self and ideal self.

Question 5

What does increased differentiation in adolescence mean?

Answer 5

Means that they can increasingly understand that they possess several different selves, each reflecting a specific role or context. Use more contextual variations when describing themselves. (eg. describe themselves differently in relation to family vs friends vs romantic partner)

Question 6

In adolescence, why does the self fluctuate across situations and time?

Answer 6

Because there are many contradictions within the self. Differentiate into multiple roles in different relationship contexts. And they now have the cognitive ability to sense potential inconsistencies between their differentiated selves.

Question 7

What is the barometric self?

Answer 7

the self characterized by instability until a more unified self is constructed in late adolescence or early adulthood.

Question 8

A strong discrepancy between real and ideal selves could be a sign of ________, but not necessarily so. Why?

Answer 8

Maladjustment. Can represent a sense of failure and self criticism

Question 9

What is the possible self?

Answer 9

An aspect of the ideal self consisting of ‘hoped-for’ and ‘feared’ selves. It is what individuals would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming.

Question 10

Which gender tends to have more strategies to attain their positive selves?

Answer 10

girls

Question 11

Why do adolscents display a false self?

Answer 11

To impress others or try out new behaviors or roles

Question 12

How does authenticity of the self link to parental support?

Answer 12

Adolescents who receive support from their parents experience less discrepancy between true and false selves.

Question 13

Why do people who display too much false selves feel upset?

Answer 13

They feel that others don’t understand their true selves or others force them to behave in false ways.

Question 14

What is the looking glass self?

Answer 14

an individual’s beliefs about how he/she is viewed by others

Question 15

Why might social comparison be confusing for adolescents?

Answer 15

large number of reference groups available. Who should I compare myself to?

Question 16

How do adolescents develop their self-understanding?

Answer 16

They turn to their friends for support and self-clarification, seeking their friend’s opinions in shaping their emerging self-definitions.

Question 17

How do adolescents protect their self from the sense of confusion and conflict?

Answer 17

By denying their negative characteristics. See positive self-description as more important as see negative self-descriptions as peripheral. (Idealistic)

Question 18

What is the unconscious self and when is the unconscious self recognised?

Answer 18

Being able to recognise that certain aspects of their mental experience are beyond their awareness or control. Late adolescence.

Question 19

When does the self become coherent and integrated?

Answer 19

Emerging adulthood

Question 20

What characterises self-understanding in emerging adulthood?

Answer 20

more integrative. increase in self-reflection and a decision about a specific worldview. But they still have a hard time integrating their complex view of the world because they are still easily influenced by their emotions, which can distort their thinking

Question 21

Can restructuring of the self take place in emerging adulthood?

Answer 21

yes.

Question 22

What are possible selves?

Answer 22

Refer to what individuals might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming. Many emerging adults have possible selves that are unrealistic (eg. being happy all the time, being very rich)

Question 23

How do possible selves change from adolescence to adults?

Answer 23

They start to have fewer possible selves and portray them in more concrete and realistic ways.

Question 24

Ethnically diverse youths have multiple selves, what does this reflect?

Answer 24

Reflects their experiences in navigating multiple worlds of family, peers, school, and community. Those who can effectively navigate between different worlds develop multicultural selves and become “cultural brokers” for others.

Question 25

What kind of barriers can ethnically diverse youths face?

Answer 25

Language, racism, gender, immigration, poverty.

Question 26

Compared to children, how do adolescents fare in understanding others' traits?

Answer 26

Adolescents start to understand that other people are complex and have public and private faces.

Question 27

Adolescents becomes better at perspective taking compared to children. What is perspective taking?

Answer 27

The ability to assume another person's perspective and understand his/her thoughts and feelings.

Question 28

Which gender engages in more social perspective taking?

Answer 28

Females

Question 29

Adolescents engage in more social cognitive monitoring activities than children. What is social cognitive monitoring?

Answer 29

Monitoring their social world more intensively and extensively. It's an important aspect of social maturity.

Question 30

What are the 8 domains used in the self-perception profile for measuring self-esteem/self-concept of adolescents?

Answer 30

1) scholastic competence 2) athletic competence 3) social acceptance 4) physical appearance 5) behavioral conduct 6) close friendship 7) romantic appeal 8) job competence

Question 31

What are some indicators of positive self concept?

Answer 31

- express opinions - uses voice quality appropriate for situation - works cooperatively in a group - initiates friendly contact with others - maintains comfortable space between self and others - little hesitation in speech

Question 32

What are some indicators of negative self concept?

Answer 32

- puts others down - inappropriate physical contact - gives excuse for failures - brags excessively about achievements, skills, appearance - verbally puts self down; self-deprecation

Question 33

Why do narcissists have adjustment problems?

Answer 33

Because they tend to be unaware of their actual self and how others perceive them. Self-centred and view their own needs and desires as paramount and devalue those around them.

Question 34

Are today's adolescents and emerging adults becoming more self-centred and narcissistic than their counterparts in earlier generations?

Answer 34

controversial. nope. maybe it's just more obvious now because adolescents have more avenues to appear narcissistic such as social media.

Question 35

During and just after life transitions, individuals' self-esteem often _____.

Answer 35

decreases

Question 36

What is the gender gap in self-esteem and when does it decrease?

Answer 36

males tend to report higher self-esteem than females at all ages. decreases during emerging adulthood (18-25 years old)

Question 37

Why is there a decline in self-esteem among females during early adolescence? (2)

Answer 37

1) negative body images during pubertal change | 2) greater interest in social relationships, and society's failure to reward that interest

Question 38

Name a very powerful contributor to self-esteem in adolescence.

Answer 38

Physical appearance. Global self-esteem most highly correlated with their perception of their physical attractiveness.

Question 39

How can family contribute to an adolescent's self-esteem?

Answer 39

- family cohesion (amount of family time, quality of communication, extent to which adolescent is involved in family decision making) - parent attributes (expression of affection, concern about child's problems, allowing freedom within well-prescribed limits)

Question 40

What kind of adults are more likely to have low self-esteem?

Answer 40

- poorer mental and physical health - worse economic prospects - higher levels of criminal behavior

Question 41

What are the positive outcomes of having higher self-regulation?

Answer 41

- high achieving - better health - more satisfied with their lives

Question 42

How do high achieving students engage in greater self-regulation?

Answer 42

they set specific learning goals, use more strategies to learn and adapt, self-monitor more, and more systematically evaluate their progress toward a goal.

Question 43

What is self-regulation?

Answer 43

The ability to control one's own behavior without relying on others. Includes self-generation and cognitive monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to reach a certain goal.

Question 44

What is effortful control?

Answer 44

A key aspect of self-regulation. Involves inhibiting impulses, and maintaining attention despite distractions, and persisting through tasks that have long-term value even if they may seem unpleasant.

Question 45

What does effortful control predict?

Answer 45

Academic persistence and educational attainment

Question 46

Increased capacity for self-regulation is linked to what brain development advances?

Answer 46

developmental advances in brain's prefrontal cortex.

Question 47

How does self-regulation foster conscientiousness?

Answer 47

through academic motivation and internalised compliance with norms

Question 48

How to increase an adolescent's self esteem?

Answer 48

1) provide emotional support and social approval (eg. confirmation from others either formally or informally) 2) foster achievement (eg. teaching of real skills to help them achieve goals) 3) help them cope with challenges

Question 49

Recall: what is Erikson's 5th developmental stage? Describe what this is about.

Answer 49

Identity vs identity confusion Adolescents are faced with deciding who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. They confront many new roles

Question 50

What is psychosocial moratorium?

Answer 50

CRISIS STAGE. The period where adolescents face many choices and they experiment with different roles and identities. Important to give adolescents time and opportunity to explore different roles and personalities.

Question 51

Youths who do not successfully resolve the identity crisis experience ______.

Answer 51

identity confusion

Question 52

By late adolscence, what kind of roles become central to identity development?

Answer 52

Vocational roles. Youth choices of careers reflect the desire to achieve meaningful identity by being true to oneself rather than burying one's identity within larger society.

Question 53

Why is identity development crucial in adolescence?

Answer 53

Because it is the first time physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development advance to a point at which the individual can sort through and synthesize childhood identities to construct a more integrated and coherent identity.

Question 54

There is a trend towards describing adolescents' identities in terms of _______.

Answer 54

multiple identities (eg. ethnicity, sexuality, vocational etc.)

Question 55

Does identity formation require commitment?

Answer 55

Yes. decisions must be made again and again. decisions might seem trivial at the time but over time they begin to form the core of the individual's identity.

Question 56

What is the trend characterising youth today involving identity resolution?

Answer 56

many youth today are not moving toward any identity resolution, but are indecisive, confused, and directionless due to excessive exploration and reflection. results in loss opportunities, doubt, and self-absorption.

Question 57

How to help youths achieve identity resolution?

Answer 57

parents, teachers, mentors etc. should provide guidance, feedback, and contexts to help them develop a positive identity

Question 58

According to Marcia, what are the 4 ways of resolving an identity crisis?

Answer 58

1) identity diffusion (no crisis, no commitment) 2) identity foreclosure (no crisis, commitment) 3) identity moratorium (crisis, no commitment) 4) identity achievement (crisis, commitment)

Question 59

In the 4 stages of identity, what is a crisis?

Answer 59

a period of identity development during which the adolescent is choosing among meaningful alternatives

Question 60

In the 4 stages of identity, what is a commitment?

Answer 60

personal investment in what he/she is going to do.

Question 61

Describe identity diffusion.

Answer 61

- haven't experienced identity crisis yet. haven't explored meaningful alternatives. - haven't made any commitments - show little interest in making such choices

Question 62

Describe identity foreclosure.

Answer 62

- made a commitment but have not experienced identity crisis - usually occurs when parents hand down commitments to their adolescence - no adequate opportunities to explore different identities

Question 63

Describe identity moratorium.

Answer 63

- in the midst of an identity crisis | - haven't made clear commitment to an identity

Question 64

Describe identity achievement.

Answer 64

- already gone through identity crisis and made a commitment

Question 65

What is a critique of Marcia's crisis-commitment model of identity status?

Answer 65

overly simplified Erikson's concept of crisis and commitment. Crisis reduced to whether the youth has thought about the issue and commitment reduced to simply having made a firm decision.

Question 66

What are the 2 processes associated with commitment?

Answer 66

1) exploration in depth -- gathering information about current commitments 2) identification with commitments -- continue to evaluate the commitment made, and may change commitment as more info is gathered and more reflection done

Question 67

What is narrative identity?

Answer 67

Refers to the stories that people construct and tell about themselves to define who they are for themselves and others.

Question 68

What important transitions contribute to searching for a meaningful identity in late adolescence and emerging adulthood?

Answer 68

- relationship - autonomy from parents - mortality events

Question 69

What are 3 aspects that are important to identity formation?

Answer 69

1) parental support 2) established sense of industry 3) ability to take a self-reflective stance towards the future.

Question 70

What is one finding that contradict's the whole idea of an identity crisis?

Answer 70

Majority of adolescents do not often experience identity conflicts. Identity development proceeds more smoothly than expected.

Question 71

Why might college produce some key changes in identity?

Answer 71

- increased complexity in reasoning skills combined with wide range of new experiences. Diverse coursework and exposure to peers from diverse backgrounds. - More independence and freedom in developing a positive identity that requires self-discipline and identity

Question 72

What are the 2 types of diffusion?

Answer 72

1) diffused diffusion (low commitment but high ruminative exploration in depth) 2) carefree diffusion (low commitment, low exploration, low synthesis, high confusion)

Question 73

What is carefree diffusion associated with?

Answer 73

high level of externalizing problems and health compromising behaviors. more males than females.

Question 74

What are "MAMA cycles"?

Answer 74

identity status changes from moratorium to achievement to moratorium to achievement. these cycles may be repeated throughout life.

Question 75

what is identity consolidation?

Answer 75

The process of refining and enhancing their identity choices

Question 76

What are 2 ways in which family can influence an adolescent's identity formation?

Answer 76

1) family atmosphere in promoting individuality and connectedness 2) attachment to parents

Question 77

What are 2 aspects of individuality that the family atmosphere can promote?

Answer 77

1) self-assertion -- ability to have and communicate a point of view 2) separateness -- expressing how one is different from others

Question 78

What are 2 aspects of connectedness that the family atmosphere can promote?

Answer 78

1) mutuality -- sensitivity and respect for others' views | 2) permeability -- openness to others' views

Question 79

Which findings support that attachment to parents might influence identity development?

Answer 79

- securely attached adolescents were far more likely to be identity achieved - avoidant insecure adolescents were less likely to engage in identity exploration related to dating

Question 80

How might quality of friendships affect one's capacity to explore one's identity?

Answer 80

- friends offer a safe context for exploring identity-related experiences, providing a testing ground for how self-disclosure are viewed by others

Question 81

What can possibly affect construction of own identities in a romantic relationship?

Answer 81

extent of secure attachment to each other

Question 82

How might adolescents in collectivistic cultures attain identity achievement?

Answer 82

possibly through identification with and imitation of others in the cultural group, rather than self-oriented identity exploration. Emphasis on embracing social and family roles.

Question 83

Which of the 4 identity statuses might be more adaptive in East Asian cultures?

Answer 83

Foreclosed status

Question 84

How might ethnic minority adolescents maintain their ethnic identities while blending in with the dominant culture?

Answer 84

may develop a bicultural identity -- identity in some ways with their ethnic group and in other ways with the majority culture. will increasingly consider the meaning of their ethnicity.

Question 85

At any age, which gender is more likely to report having a more advanced level of identity formation?

Answer 85

females. they are more likely to have more elaborate self-representations in their identity narratives.

Question 86

What concerns are more central to male identity?

Answer 86

vocational concerns -- career, ideology

Question 87

What concerns are more central to female identity?

Answer 87

affiliative conerns -- marriage and childbearing

Question 88

Recall: What is the 6th developmental task from Erikson's model?

Answer 88

intimacy vs isolation | forming intimate relationships with others.

Question 89

What does erikson argue is the most important factor in forming intimate connections with others?

Answer 89

A strong sense of self, expressed through identity achievement Suggest that identity development in adolescence is a precursor to intimacy

Question 90

Adolescence is a time of "storm and stress" and emotional turmoil. What does this mean.

Answer 90

It's a time when emotional highs and lows occur more frequently. They report more extreme and fleeting emotions than their parents.

Question 91

Is moodiness a normal aspect of early adolescence?

Answer 91

yes. but for some adolescents, intensely negative emotions can reflect serious problems

Question 92

How might gender expectations for expressing emotions differ across cultures?

Answer 92

In some cultures, males may be expected to express less positive and negative emotions than females.

Question 93

How might biological influences relate to emotional fluctuations?

Answer 93

Variability in hormonal levels during puberty

Question 94

How do the moods of adults compare to adolescents?

Answer 94

Moods become less extreme. Perhaps due to adaptation to hormone levels over time, or maturation of prefrontal cortex.

Question 95

What contributes more to emotions of adolescents - biological or environmental influences?

Answer 95

Environmental influences - stress, eating patterns, sexual activity, social relationships

Question 96

What are 2 possible source of stressors for adolescents that can cause mood swings?

Answer 96

1) transition from primary to secondary school | 2) onset of sexual experiences and romantic relationships

Question 97

How do adolescents fare in terms of emotional regulation?

Answer 97

They often have difficulty managing their emotions. Arousal can reach levels that are too high for effective functioning in adolescence.

Question 98

How do adolescents' emotional regulation change as they get older?

Answer 98

They improve their use of cognitive strategies for regulating emotion. They become more adept at managing situations to minimise negative emotion

Question 99

What is the cognitive reappraisal strategy and how does it help regulate emotion?

Answer 99

Change how one thinks about a situation to regulate the emotional impact. Better than suppression strategy. Suppressing or avoiding the emotional circumstances typically does not lead to an adaptive outcome.

Question 100

What are some emotional competencies that are important for adolescents to develop? (5)

Answer 100

1) aware of the role of emotion expression in relationships 2) adaptive coping with negative emotions using self-regulatory strategies to reduce intensity and duration of such emotional states 3) understanding that inner emotional states do not have to correspond to outer expressions 4) being aware of own emotional states without being overwhelmed by them 5) being able to discern others' emotions

Question 101

What are the big 5 factors of personality?

Answer 101

``` Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism ```

Question 102

What is openness to experience associated with?

Answer 102

identity exploration, tolerance, superior cognitive functioning

Question 103

what does conscientiousness predict?

Answer 103

adjustment and competence in many life domains (health, stress, gpa, interpersonal relationships)

Question 104

What does extraversion predict?

Answer 104

willingness to engage in social activities, more positive sense of well-being in the future.

Question 105

What does agreeableness predict?

Answer 105

more generous and altruistic, more satisfying romantic relationships, view other people positively

Question 106

What does neuroticism predict?

Answer 106

likelihood of feeling negative emotion in daily life, experience more lingering negative states, health complains, lower sense of wellbeing

Question 107

Which aspects of the big 5 increases in late adolescence?

Answer 107

conscientiousness and agreeableness

Question 108

What is optimism?

Answer 108

Having a positive outlook on the future and minimizing problems. Style of thinking.

Question 109

What does having an optimistic style of thinking predict?

Answer 109

reduced suicidal ideation, lower risk of developing depressive symptoms

Question 110

What is a criticism of the big 5 approach to personality?

Answer 110

Doesn't consider personality in terms of contexts and situations. Places too much emphasis on stability and lack of change.

Question 111

What are the 3 clusters of temperament?

Answer 111

1) easy child 2) difficult child 3) slow-warm-up child

Question 112

What characterises an 'easy child'?

Answer 112

generally in positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, adapts readily to new experiences

Question 113

What characterizes a 'difficult child'?

Answer 113

reacts negatively to many situations and is slow to accept new experiences

Question 114

What characterizes a 'slow-to-warm-up' child?

Answer 114

low activity level, is somewhat negative and displays a low intensity of mood

Question 115

Which kind of infant show more optimal development across behavioral and intellectual domains in late adolescence? why?

Answer 115

Easier temperament infants | tend to experience a more stimulating and cohesive family environment, and have more positive relationships with parents

Question 116

difficult temperament + family conflicts --> increase in ?

Answer 116

externalizing behavior problems

Question 117

Kids who had good control of their emotions as kids are more likely to _____ as adults?

Answer 117

continue to handle their emotions effectively and be resilient in the face of stress

Question 118

What is goodness of fit?

Answer 118

the match between an indvidual's temperament and the environmental demands that the individual must cope with

Question 119

What does the new classfication of temperament focus on?

Answer 119

1) positive affect and approach (extraversion) 2) negative affect (introversion and neuroticism) 3) effortful control (self-regulation of emotions)