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year one: semester two > Term 3: Internal Transport > Flashcards

Term 3: Internal Transport Flashcards

1
Q

What is pulmonary circulation?

A

De-oxygenated blood from the tissues flows through the heart to the lungs in order to pick up oxygen. The oxygenated blood is then returned to the heart.

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2
Q

What is systemic circulation?

A

Oxygenated blood from the lungs flows through the heart to the tissues and rest of the body. The de-oxygenated blood then returns to the heart.

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3
Q

Pulmonary circulation occurs in the two left chambers of the heart. True or False?

A

False. It occurs in the two right chambers.

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4
Q

What are the four chambers of the heart called?

A

Left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle and right ventricle.

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5
Q

Systemic circulation occurs in which two chambers of the heart?

A

The left atrium and left ventricle

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6
Q

Name the four valves in the heart.

Where are each of them?

A
  • The mitral or bicuspid valve between the left atrium and left ventricle.
  • The tricuspid valve between the right atrium and right ventricle.
  • The aortic valve between the left ventricle and the aorta.
  • The pulmonary valve between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.
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7
Q

What is the main function of the valves in the heart?

A

To ensure the flow of blood in one direction and to prevent back flow into the chambers of the heart.

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8
Q

The four valves are known as what?

A

The atrioventricular (AV) valves and semi lunar valves (pulmonary and aortic semilunar)

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9
Q

How does blood flow?

A

It flows in response to a change in pressure from one area to another eg. from the atrium to the ventricle or the ventricle to the aorta. As pressure occurs blood moves, from an area of high concentration to an area of low.

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10
Q

In systemic circulation what do oxygen and carbon dioxide do?

A

O2 leaves the blood capillaries and diffuses into the capillaries surrounding the tissues.
CO2 diffuses from the tissues capillary beds into the blood capillaries

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11
Q

What are the two major vessels that return de-oxygenated blood to the heart?

A

The superior and inferior vena cava

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12
Q

The bicuspid or mitral valve is where?

A

Between the left atrium and left ventricle

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13
Q

Which two chambers of the heart pump oxygenated blood?

A

The left atrium and left ventricle

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14
Q

What does systole mean?

A

It is the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle

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15
Q

What is the cardiac cycle?

A

It is the series of events from the beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next heartbeat. It involves two distinct actions systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation).

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16
Q

What is the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle called?

A

Diastole

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17
Q

What do the atrioventricular valves do?

A

Prevents back flow of blood into the atria

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18
Q

What brings the de-originated blood to the lungs?

A

The pulmonary trunk which then splits into separate arteries called the pulmonary arteries.

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19
Q

What separates the left and right atria?

A

The interatrial septum

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20
Q

What do the semilunar valves do?

A

Prevents back flow of blood into the ventricles

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21
Q

During relaxation the blood enters the left atrium via…?

A

The pulmonary vein

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22
Q

Describe the shape and size of the heart?

A

A hollow cone shape. About the size of your fist .

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23
Q

What is the name of the gradient that controls the flow of blood?

A

A pressure gradient

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24
Q

Pressure is created by what?

A

Pressure is created by blood being forced into a compartment and other muscle that surrounds the compartment. Eg. Before blood can move into the ventricle the valves close the chambers off so blood only flows into the atria. As the blood fills the atria, pressure will increase. When the pressure in the atria is higher than in the ventricle, blood then forces the valves open and blood flows into the ventricle.

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25
Q

What are the three layers of muscle in and around the heart?

A

The endocardium, myocardium and the epicardium

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26
Q

What does the myocardium consist of?

A

Myo-centre. This thick layer of cardiac muscle is the layer of the heart in which the majority of work occurs. It contains cardiac muscle tissue, blood vessels and nerves.

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27
Q

Where does the heart lie?

A

It lies in the pervasive sac, between the lungs, anterior to the vertebra and posterior to the sternum.
The heart is on a slight angle, it’s points towards the right shoulder and the apex points towards the left hip.

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28
Q

The pericardium consists of what?

A

It consists of 2 layers: the fibrous and serous pericardium.

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29
Q

The outer layer of the pericardium is called the fibrous layer. True or False?

A

True.

The outer layer: fibrous layer attaches the heart to the diaphragm and sternum

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30
Q

What does the inner serous layer form?

A

A double membrane. The two layers form a space called the pericardium cavity and secrete fluid that permits the layers to brush or move over each other as the heart contracts/beats.

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31
Q

What are the three events of the cardiac cycle?

A
  • Atrial systole: atria contract/ventricle relax and blood is ready to be pushed into the ventricles.
  • Ventricle systole: ventricle begin contraction/atria are relaxed, pressure begins to build in the ventricles pushing the semilunar valves open and blood is forced into circulation.
  • Complete diastole: is the point where the whole heart is relaxed and the cardiac cycle starts again
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32
Q

What is the endocardium?

A

Endo-inner. The inner layer of muscle that lines each of the 4 chambers of the heart including valves to ensure blood flows through the chambers of the heart.

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33
Q

The epicardium is the outer layers. True or false?

A

True.

Epi-outer. This visceral layer of the pericardium consists of connective tissue (CT) that is attached to the myocardium.

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34
Q

What is the importance of the serous fluid?

A

It ensures the heats beats without friction of resistance. Without this serous fluid, friction will occur and the heart will have difficulty in its ability as a pump.
Also the loss of serous fluids can result in inflammation of the pericardium called pericarditis.

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35
Q

How is cardiac muscle similar to skeletal muscle?

A

Cardiac muscle cells are unique but share some similarity with skeletal muscle - including a striated appearance and think/thin filaments.

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36
Q

Cardiac muscle is similar to smooth muscle.

True or false?

A

True. Cardiac muscle cells share some similarities with smooth muscle whereby stimulating and maintaining a wave of contractions/relaxations.

37
Q

How is cardiac muscle completely unique from other muscle types?

A

Cardiac muscle cells are unique because they are able to contract individually-all while another cardiac muscle cell is relaxing. This interconnected ness allows for electrical signals to pass through each individual cell at intercalated discs (or a ‘joint’)

38
Q

The valves of the heart have an inter relationship what does that mean involving the AV and semilunar valves?

A

Means they work at the same time. Eg. The AV valves open as the heart relaxes and close when the ventricles are contracting. The semi lunar valves are open as the ventricles contract and they close during relaxation.

39
Q

What is coronary circulation?

A

It delivers oxygen rich blood to the myocardium.
As the heart relaxes, oxygen rich blood leaves the left ventricle via the aorta and enters the right and left coronary arteries. It continues via the anterior and posterior branches.
Oxygen poor blood then returns to the right side of the heart via the cardiac veins into the coronary sinus.

40
Q

What is atrial and ventricle contraction?

A

Atrial contraction-The right and left Atria contract to force blood into ventricles.
Ventricular contraction-The right and left Ventricles contract to force blood into the vessels.

41
Q

What is pre load?

What is after load?

A

Pre load-is the maximum amount of blood received by ventricles just prior to systole.
-the amount of blood pushed from the left ventricle during ventricular systole is called stroke volume.
After load-is the amount of pressure needed by the ventricles to ensure blood forces the semilunar valves open.
-blood coming in determines the pressure of the blood coming out.

42
Q

What is the vascular system and vessel structure?

A

3 layers tunica - intima (interna), media and externa.
They have sympathetic nerves located throughout the structure.
Arteries are high pressure, expand and recoil, as oxygenated blood is pushed out of the heart and around the body.
Veins maintain a lower pressure as they return all deoxygenated blood back to the heart using a valve system.
Capillaries branch through the tissues ensuring November of various products between blood and tissues, linking arteries to veins.
Vasoconstriction and vasodilation impact on the vessel diameter, altering resistance of blood flow, impacting on blood pressure.

43
Q

What does tunica intima/ interna, media and externa mean?

A

The tunica intima/interna: lines the interior, the cells are tight fitting and this serves to decrease friction as blood flows thru the vessel.
The tunica media: is the middle layer of smooth muscle and elastin, allows the vessels to constrict/dilate.
The tunica externa: is the outer layer predominantly collagen that serves to support and protect the vessels.

44
Q

What are the three main types of blood vessels?

A

Arteries, veins and capillaries

45
Q

Where does blood go as it travels?

A

Blood leaves the left ventricle via the arteries.
Each section of arteries has branching vessels serving blood to various organs.
Running alongside arteries are veins.
Veins drain back into the superior and inferior vena cava and empty into the right atrium of the heart.

46
Q

What are the torso arteries and various branches?

A

Ascending aorta - branches into left and right coronary arteries.
Aortic arch - branches to brachiocephalic, subclavian and carotid arteries.
Thoracic aorta - branches to the intercostal arteries.
Abdominal aorta - branches to 6 arteries.

47
Q

What are the veins in the torso?

A

The veins follow the arteries course, named in conjunction with the arteries, returning blood to the superior/inferior vena cava

48
Q

What is portal circulation?

A

It is defined as a portal that includes two capillaries that empty into one another. Eg. The hepatic portal vein brings blood from digestive organs, pancreas and spleen to the liver. The division of veins form two capillary beds. From the liver, blood flows into the hepatic vein joining the inferior vena cava.

49
Q

What are the arteries and veins of the upper limbs?

A

Arteries-Subclavian artery (that arises from the aortic arch) becomes the axillary artery and then the brachial artery.
At the elbow it splits to form the radial and ulna arteries.
Veins-they consist of a superficial and deep set of vessels that drain into the subclavian vein.

50
Q

What are the arteries and veins of the lower limbs?

A

Arteries-the common iliac arteries extend to the femoral artery to the popliteal artery to dorsalis pedis artery.
Veins-anterior and posterior tibial veins drain the leg to the inferior vena cava.

51
Q

What are the arteries in the head/neck?

A

Arteries-There are two pairs of arteries on both sides travel to the head from the carotid and subclavian arteries.
They join at the circle of willis.

52
Q

What are the veins of the head/neck?

A

There are pairs of veins draining blood from the scalp and face.
The superior spinal cord and vertebrae empty into the vertebral veins.
The Blood draining from the brain flows into the sinuses and eventually empties into the jugular veins.
Veins follow the carotid arteries down the neck.

53
Q

What is the process of foetal circulation?

A
  • The umbilical cord contains one umbilical vein (carrying O2 and nutrient rich blood) and two umbilical arteries (carrying CO2 and waste).
  • Blood bi-passes the liver and lungs of the foetus.
  • Blood flows into the R atrium and some blood flows into the R ventricle but most blood flows R to L through the foramen ovale (a hole in the atrial septum.
  • any blood that enters the pulmonary artery is diverted into the aorta.
54
Q

What is the cardiac physiology?

A
  • includes the aorta, pulmonary and their branches
  • arteries are the largest and most elastic blood vessels
  • as blood moves into arteries they expand.
  • ventricles relax, arteries recoil and blood moves onward.
55
Q

Explain the process of blood flowing through the body.

A
  • Blood leaves the heart and flows onto the arteries to the capillaries to the veins to take it back to the heart.
  • It exchanges nutrients, O2/CO2 and H2O between blood and tissues within capillaries.
  • This occurs via diffusion/facilitated movement, osmosis; vesicular transport and bulk flow.
56
Q

What does bulk flow represent?

A

It represents large movements of H2O between ICF and ECF via filtration/absorption.
The movement of H2O reflects blood volume.

57
Q

What is cardiac output?

A
  • It represents the amount of blood fprxes out of the L ventricle into the aorta over a minute.
  • It is dependent upon the amount of stretch (dependent on cardiac muscle) occurring in the left ventricle (as it fills with blood).
  • this produces pressure called contractility
58
Q

What does heart rate/pulse tell you?

A

It tells you how well the blood is flowing through the arteries (particularly aorta) by measuring the expansion and recoil of the arteries as ventricles contract pushing blood out into circulation.
It reflects the ability of the heart to relax.

59
Q

What relation does cardiac muscle have to pulse?

A

Cardiac muscle cells begin a wave of electrical currents in one direction throughout the heart ensuring a continuous, rhythmical way. This constitutes a pulse.

60
Q

What causes the heart to contract?

A

Waves of action potentials

  • Depolarization - Na ions moving into the ICF, causing a +ve charge in the ICF
  • repolarization - K leaves the ICF and moves into the ECF
  • Ca ions move into cytoplasm to maintain the contraction ensuring it travels throughout the heart.
61
Q

What does the cardiac conduction system consist of?

A

SA node-found in the R atrium, it starts each heart beat referred to as the body’s pacemaker. The electrical impulses are generated here.
AV node-controls the heart rate. It slows the electrical current sent from the SA node
Atrioventricular bundle-carries the action potential (electrical current) to the interventricular septum.
Bundle branches-the AV bundle breaks into branches called the bundle branches.
Purkinje fibres-the bundle branches divide into smaller branches at the apex of the ventricle called purkinje fibres.

62
Q

What does ECG (EKG) mean?

A

It is an electrical record of the heart beat. It represents cardiac conduction/the atria/ventricle systole/diastole throughout the heart.

63
Q

Is BP the contraction or relaxation of the heart?

A

No, it’s the measurement of pressure in the arteries, this pressure is caused by the movement of blood as it moves down its concentration gradient-from areas of high to low pressure

64
Q

What two things impact on BP?

A
  • Cardiac output/the amount of blood that flows thru the heart over a minute.
  • Resistance/the force encountered by the blood as it flows thru the vessels.
65
Q

The maximum pressure that forces blood out of the heart and into the arteries is..
Systolic BP or Diastolic BP?

A

Systolic BP

66
Q

As the ventricles relax, during the cardiac cycle, the remaining blood in the arteries cause a minimum pressure known as..
Systolic BP or Diastolic BP

A

Diastolic BP

67
Q

What factors influence BP through peripheral resistance?

A
  • Size and elasticity of the vessel
  • Blood volume
  • How easily blood flows
  • The health of arteries as this can adjust blood volume without changing pressure
  • The renal system adjusts elasticity of vessels in response to BP
  • The autonomic nervous system via receptors in vessels, adjusts BP
68
Q

What are some lifestyle risk factors that can increase BP?

A
  • High cholesterol diet produces plaque in vessels, increases resistance and BP increases
  • Nicotine constricts vessels and BP increases
  • Diet high in Na causes H2O to move into blood resulting in increased blood volume and increase in BP
69
Q

How does the renal system link to the regulation of BP?

A
  • Change in BP impacts urine input or output
  • Blood volume increases=increase in CO=increases BP=kidneys increase urine output
  • Blood volume decreases=decrease in CO=BP drops=kidneys decrease urine output
  • Kidneys are most efficient at maintaining homeostasis during BP changes
70
Q

What is the name for ‘hardening of the arteries’?

A

Atherosclerosis

71
Q

What is atherosclerosis?

A

Deposits of cholesterol and lipids within wall of artery.

72
Q

What are some common causes of atherosclerosis?

A
  • smoking
  • high blood cholesterol
  • high blood glucose levels
  • high blood pressure
73
Q

What is hypertension?

A

Sustained elevation of blood pressure on three or more occasions over several weeks. Systolic 140 or higher. Diastolic 90 or higher.

74
Q

What factors can put people at risk of hypertension?

A
  • age, sex, family history, obesity, smoking, excess dietary sodium, elevated serum lipids, alcohol, sedimentary lifestyle, diabetes, stress
75
Q

What happens during coronary artery disease?

A

Plaques rupture in the coronary arteries and obstruct the flow of blood to the heart muscle.

76
Q

What are the steps of cardio vascular risk assesment?

A
  • measure, record risk factors
  • assess level of risk
  • interventions
  • set goals
  • monitor
77
Q

Blood aids in what body functions?

A
  • Transportation of respiratory gases (O2/CO2), water, hormones, enzymes, nutrients, elements responsible for acid-base balance, waste
  • Defence mechanisms (leukocytes)
  • Aids to regulate body temp
  • Protect against blood loss (platelets)
  • Ensures pressure gradients
78
Q

Plasma is made up of what?

A

90% water
1% various substances - nutrients, electrolytes, waste, gases etc
9% three major plasma proteins - albumin, fibrinogen, globulin

79
Q

What cells are found in the blood?

A
  • Erythrocytes (RBC) 45% of blood cells
  • Leukocytes (WBC), lesser numbers and replaced more often the RBC
  • Platelets, fragments of cells, responsible for clotting processes
80
Q

What is the formation of cells called?

A

-Hematopoiesis it occurs in the bone marrow.
All blood cells develop from hematopoietic stem cell.
-Lymphoid stem cell responsible for production of lymphocytes
-Myeloid stem cell responsible for others

81
Q

Explain Leukocytes/WBC

A
  • They are crucial to body’s defence against bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites, tumour cells.
  • They move through blood and lymph and found in various locations
  • Their numbers increase very quickly, particularly in response to infection.
82
Q

What happens in the formation of WBC?

A
  • Stimulating the formation of leukocytes occurs through interleukins
  • Interleukins are cytokines
  • Cytokines are a type of messenger involved in the regulation of the immune system
  • Occurs via a cell - cell signalling (WBC - WBC) which prompts bone marrow to begin production of leukocytes
83
Q

What is the body’s way of repairing tissue when injury has occurred?

A

Inflammation

  • Relies on cells and healthy vessels/blood flow
  • Acute inflammation-involves neutrophils
  • Chronic inflammation-involves lymphocytes and macrophages
  • Another form associated with allergies and parasitic reactions-involves eosinophils and basophils
84
Q

Explain Erythrocytes (RBC)

A
  • Structure resembles doughnut, no nucleus and few organelles, lifespan 120 days
  • Function:O2 transpiration attached to haemoglobin (Hb)
  • Decrease in the ability to transport O2 is called anaemia
  • The % of RBC compared to total blood volume is viscosity
  • When number of erythrocytes increases/decreases=viscosity increases/decreases
85
Q

What is the importance of Fe?

A
  • Fe comes from the foods we eat
  • It is absorbed into the blood and stored in the liver, spleen and bone marrow
  • Hemoglobin consists of 4 Fe molecules and each of the 4 combines with 1 molecule of O2
86
Q

What is the production process of RBC?

A
  • Occurs in the bone marrow, takes 3-7 days
  • Production is called “Erythropoiesis”
  • They age, with old RBC phagocytised by macrophages
  • The Fe is transported by transferrin to storage sites (bone marrow, liver and spleen)
  • Non Fe broken down by bilirubin, amino acids recycled
87
Q

What stimulates RBC production?

A
  • Production is controlled by the ability of RBC to transport O2
  • If hypoxic, RBC production increases and if high in O2 RBC production decreases
  • RBC production is controlled by “erythropoietin” (EPO)
  • EPO is produced by the kidneys
88
Q

What is blood grouping?

A
  • RBC contain antigen specific receptors
  • Two specific sets: ABO group and Rh group
  • ABO is based on whether a person has A or B or AB antigens or no antigens present
  • Rh (rhesus) factor is present on the RBC: blood is Rh+Ve
  • Rh factor is not present on the RBC-blood is Rh-Ve

year one: semester two (8 decks)

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