Depression

Question 1

Reliability of the dsm/bdi

Krupinski and Teller

Answer 1

2001, they found that only a quarter of 2,500 gps could think of 5 out of 9 symptoms from the DSM

Question 2

Reliability of the dsm/bdi

Beck

Answer 2

1996, beck looked at 26 outpatients and the test rested reliability of their therapy sessions. He found a correlation of +0.93 between the first and second session (1 week later) which meant that the reliability was high.

Question 3

Reliability of the dsm/bdi

Keller

Answer 3

1995, Keller gathered 524 depressed patients and tested the reliability of the dsm. They found that dysthymia and MDD was fair to good however 6 months later the results were a lot lower (dysthymia was fair and MDD was poor) which shows that the test retest reliability was low.

Question 4

Validity of the dsm/bid

McCullough et al

Answer 4

2003, they looked at 681 outpatients with various types of depression and found that their treatment didn’t really differ, this means that the internal validity of these measures aren’t as high as previously thought.

Question 5

Validity of the dsm/bid

Cormobidity

Answer 5

This is the extent to which to conditions co-exist so is the dsm and bdi measuring depression or anxiety?

Question 6

Validity of the dsm/bid

Beck

Answer 6

1988, he constantly showed concurrent validity between his bdi and the Hamilton rating scale.

Question 7

van-weel baumgarten

Answer 7

2006, found that gp diagnosis aren’t valid because they base their diagnosis on previous patient knowledge so they are biased.

Question 8

Goodwin et al

Answer 8

2001, found that those who had MDD were 5 times more likely to have suicidal thoughts than those who had no psychiatric disorder, this was 3 times higher with people who Comorbid with panic disorders.

Question 9

Karasz

Answer 9

2005, he gave a vignette to people from two different cultures in New York. The 37 Asian immigrants thought that self help and non professional advice would be best whereas the 36 European s thought that there was neurological problems to blame.

Question 10

Aneshelen

Answer 10

1985, 20% of women get depression compared to only 10% of men. They also found that the depression that women experience occurs at younger ages, lasts longer and is linked to stressful life events.

Question 11

Nolenhoeksama

Answer 11

1897, found that when depressed women notice the negative feelings and are more likely to seek professional help whereas men are more likely to use distractions like alcohol to self medicate.

Question 12

Hammer

Answer 12

1997, 4 things that make it seem like its biological

1) runs in families
2) medications work
3) psychical changes
4) many things give rise to it, meds etc

Question 13

Harrington

Answer 13

FAMILY 1993, out of those with probands 20% also developed depression compared to 10% of people who didn’t.

So there is a genetic link as having a first degree relative is major risk factor.

Question 14

McGuffin et al

Answer 14

TWIN 1996, studied 177 probands and their same sex co-twin, they found concordance rates of 46% with monozygotic twins and 20% with fraternal twins- showing that depression has a major heritable component.

Question 15

Wender et al

Answer 15

ADOPTION 1986, he looked at two groups of adopted adults, those who were hospitalised for severe depression were more likely to have a relative that also had severe depression. As the environment was removed it was clear that genetics was the only plausible cause.

Question 16

Kendler et al

Answer 16

Diathesis stress model 1995, they found that women who were the co-twin of the depressed patient were more likely to become depressed than those with the genetic vulnerability. The highest levels were found in those who had significant life events.

Question 17

Zhang et al

Answer 17

2005, found that a mutant gene that starves the Brain of serotonin is 10 times more prevalent in depressed patients.

Question 18

Melancholia

Answer 18

Freud believed that mourning and melancholia were closely related, mourning is a natural process and melancholia is a pathological disease. When we lose a loved one we go through a period of mourning and then we eventually get over it and move one, some people don’t get over it and are in a state of melancholia.

Question 19

Unconscious thoughts

Answer 19

Freud also believed that when we lose a loved one we go through stages of remembrance and separation. We unconsciously harbour feelings of sadness and anger when a loved one does and we repress those feelings until they are eventually turned back onto ourselves, we create a pattern of self blame/abuse because all of those feelings are placed on ourselves.

Question 20

Criticism of Freuds theory

Answer 20

It can be applied to all types of depression as only 10% of depressive cases originated with the loss of a family member.

Question 21

Comer

Answer 21

2002, psychoanalysis is not very effective for depressed patients because it takes a lot of motivation and communication is difficult because the therapy is a bit strange.

Question 22

Barnes and prosen

Answer 22

1985, men who had lost their fathers in early childhood were more likely to be depressed than similar men who hadn’t. They scored higher on a depression scale.

Question 23

Bifulco et al

Answer 23

1992, found evidence that children who had lost their mothers in early childhood were more likely to suffer from depression in adult life, despite this they found further evidence that showed the lack of care after the loss may be more significant than the loss itself.

Question 24

Beck

Answer 24

1967, our thinking tends to favour the negative view of the world to begin with. A negative schema is where people feel negatively about everything and can be developed by a number of factors such as parental/peer rejection etc. it is activated when the individual is involved in a situation that mimics the situation in which the schema was developed.

Question 25

Seigalman

Answer 25

1975, learned helplessness is linked to depression. It comes about when people try and fail to control an unpleasant situation, this leads to impairment of controlling situations that they can actually control (the helplessness prevents them from doing anything about it). He also discovered that depressed people had a more pessimistic view of these negative situations and they tended to hold themselves accountable.

Question 26

Abrahamson- revised helplessness.

Answer 26

1989, people with a negative attribution all style view the world more pessimistically than those who don’t (internal, stable, global thinking).

Question 27

Abrahamson- further revision of helplessness.

Answer 27

1989, a negative attributional style doesn’t necessarily lead to depression therefore hopelessness is more likely/ a better fit. Hopelessness is the belief that something bad will inevitably happen and you don’t have the tools to change that negative outcome.

Question 28

Hiroto and Seigalman

Answer 28

1975, college students who were exposed to uncontrollable averse situations were more likely to fail cognitive tasks.

Question 29

Criticism of becks theory

Answer 29

Studies show that there is link between logical errors and depression but no real proof- only casual relationships.

Question 30

Kwon and laurenceau

Answer 30

2002, found that patients who had been assessed for weeks and had a high negative attributional style were more likely to show high levels of depressed symptoms when stressed.

Question 31

Sociocultural factors intro

Answer 31

Cognitive models believe that a depressive attributional style acts as a diathesis that prediposes the individual so that they interpret a situation and the consequences of that situation in a way that facilitates depression.

Question 32

Billings et al

Answer 32

1983, people who are depressed tend to have little social groups therefore little social support. This means that they are unable to handle negative situations and often are left vulnerable to depression

Question 33

Joiner

Answer 33

1992, found that depressed individuals have a deficit in social skills.

Question 34

Brown and Harris

Answer 34

1978, found a link between early bereavement and depression, this supports the life events approach as a bereavement is a life event. It’s also linked vulnerability and long term difficulties.

Question 35

Hammen

Answer 35

1997, not the case as British women were all that was used in the study. Women are more likely to suffer from depression be uses they rely more on social support and they feel it’s absence more, stress causes depression but depression also causes stress.

Question 36

Kraft et al

Answer 36

2005, studied 26 patients who were being treated for MDD for 6 weeks. They found that those who were treated with a dual serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor showed significant improvement- more than those who were using a placebo

Question 37

Leonard et al

Answer 37

2000, found that drugs that increased levels of noradrenaline acted as antidepressants whereas drugs that lowered noradrenaline induced depressive States.

Question 38

Ruhr et al

Answer 38

2007, gave patients a tryptophan deficient amino acid mixture that lowered levels of serotonin in the brain. They found that depressive symptoms reoccurred when the tryptophan levels were lowered.

However this deficiency had no effect on people who didn’t have depression and had no family history of depression.

Question 39

Strickland et al

Answer 39

2002, found no hypersecretion in a large group of women who had depression and those who were vulnerable to depression because of adverse social and personal circumstances.

They did find elevated levels in people who had just recently experienced life events so cortisol doesn’t necessarily lead to depression.