Exam 2

Question 1

Social identity

Answer 1

A self-concept that is based on group membership and the emotional attachments (affiliations) associated with that membership.

Question 2

Social identity characteristics

Answer 2

• Many groups vs. meaningful groups
• Shared values, beliefs, norms, etc.
• Reference groups - media tells you about other groups
• Events (historical & current)

Question 3

Intersectionality

Answer 3

Def: The condition in which a person simultaneously belongs to two or more social categories and the unique consequences that result from that combination.
Significance: ethnicity, gender, age (intersect - we are made up of so many)

Question 4

Stereotype

Answer 4

The oversimplified beliefs held about an individual or a group of people and the oversimplified characteristics assigned to them based on their group membership.

Question 5

Social psychological perspective - stereotypes

Answer 5

• Ability to process incoming information
• Cognitive short cuts (categorization)
• Multiple schemas
• Stereotypes - 1 type of schema
• In-group (diverse) vs. out-group (stereotypes)
• Expectations
• Cultivation Theory (long term, cumulative effects)

Question 6

Cultural/critical studies perspective - stereotypes

Answer 6

• Lens of power
• Hegemony (noun): power structure in society where political and social elite have more power over others with less power.
• –Not conscious
• –Not imposed through force
• –Pervasive
• Stereotypes reinforce and perpetuate power structure

Question 7

Sex vs. Gender

Answer 7

• Sex: biologically determined (male, female)

- Gender: socially constructed (masculine, feminine)

Question 8

Socially constructed

Answer 8

Identities are negotiated within a social context (not biologically determined)

Question 9

Gender identity

Answer 9

The degree to which people see themselves and others as masculine or feminine

Question 10

Gender socialization

Answer 10

Individuals learn about gender – about what it means to be masculine or feminine from socializing agents

Question 11

Engenderment

Answer 11

Process by which a biological female becomes a socially constructed feminine being and a biological male becomes a socially constructed masculine being

Question 12

Hyper-masculinity

Answer 12

Gender-based ideology of exaggerated beliefs about what it is to be a man (hyper masculine traits - media)

Question 13

Hyper-femininity

Answer 13

Gender-based ideology of exaggerated beliefs about what it is to be a woman (hyper feminine traits - media)

Question 14

Mediated images of gender and implications

Answer 14

• Hyperfeminine, hypermasculine - most prevalent image/traits in media
• Small segment of population
• Implications: inadequacy, exhibiting to fit in, consumer culture, judgment of others, gender ambiguity - marginalization of those who don’t fit in

Question 15

Hypersexuality

Answer 15

An overemphasis on sexuality by way of clothing, body proportions, poses, actions and camera angles.

Question 16

Gender display

Answer 16

The process of performing the roles expected of us by the social convention that surrounds us

Question 17

Goffman’s main argument

Answer 17

There are patterns of masculine and feminine displays and poses in ads that perpetuate who is more powerful or dominant (hegemony)

Question 18

Objectification

Answer 18

• Any presentation emphasizing sexually suggestive body parts - sometimes not including the heady/eyes
• Objects: demeaning, dehumanizing
• Role-product congruity

Question 19

Ritualization of subordination

Answer 19

A classic stereotype of deference is that of lowering oneself physically in some form.

Question 20

2 observations by Goffman

Answer 20

1. Defenseless

2. Sexualized

Question 21

Arguments opposing hyper-sexualized images

Answer 21

• Media effects? (shaper)
• Women: maintain hegemonic patriarchal system, hegemonic femininity
• Men: maintain hegemonic masculinity
• Dehumanizing, low self-esteem, low self-efficacy, marginalization, inequalities…

Question 22

Three waves of feminism

Answer 22

• First wave: 1800’s to late 1900’s
• Second wave: 60’s, 70’s - present
• Third wave: daughters of the 2nd wave

Question 23

Characteristics of today’s celebrity

Answer 23

• Entertainment & sports industries
• Media
• Private lives vs. professional lives
• Fame vs. initial achievements

Question 24

Different perspectives on celebrity

Answer 24

• Consumers & investors of celebrity
• Academia
• Commentary on celebrity

Question 25

Charismatic Theory of Stardom

Answer 25

• Born vs. manufactured
• 3 Assumptions (the 3 I’s)
  1. Individual
  2. Innate
  3. Inevitable

Question 26

Political economy perspective of celebrities

Answer 26

Celebrities are commodified

• Created, promoted, & sold to us as mass media
• Consumption - we buy celebrities like products
• Endorsements
• Name, image, personal meaning to brand

Question 27

Celebrities as brands

Answer 27

-Brand identity

Question 28

Benefits of celebrity endorsements to corporations

Answer 28

• Higher brand awareness
• Positive brand attitudes
• Greater consumer loyalty

Question 29

Balance theory - emotional transfer

Answer 29

Me —> Brand & Celebrity

Celebrity —> Brand

Question 30

Cultural meaning - cognitive transfer

Answer 30

Example/Study: Paired Gap brand with Britney Spears, Paris Hilton, or Jessica Simpson. After the pairing, beliefs were more consistent with the beliefs about each celebrity (controversial, trashy, and cheap). This shift produced a more negative attitude toward the brand.

Question 31

Parasocial interactions

Answer 31

The relationship audience members have with characters they interact with through some form of media including theater, radio, and TV.

Question 32

Characteristics of parasocial interactions

Answer 32

• Perception that one knows a celebrity or character immediately
• Fans develop positive attitudes toward characters (or celebrity personas), get to know them and experience feelings of intimacy with them.
• Engage in vicarious participation in their lives

Question 33

2 important effects of social media on parasocial interactions/relationships

Answer 33

• Normalized parasocial perception

- Made relationships more intimate

Question 34

5 audience types

Answer 34

1. Traditionalist - believe what they see and read
2. Second order traditionalist - believe that what they see/read was placed by “someone” but is still true
3. Postmodernists - know about celebrity manufacturer and seek out its evidence and its details, rejecting most stories as naive or false
   4/5. Gossipers/Detectives - regard the stories about celebrities as semi-fictional (made up for publicity purposes). What distinguishes these last 2 is their use of information they discover.

Question 35

Political economy perspectives - trends in news rooms

Answer 35

• New owners focus on economic bottom line/profit motive
• Secure advertising dollars
• Focus is on increasing ratings
• Public interested in celebrities and scandal
• News shows integrate celebrity/entertainment stories (scandal) in with regular news
• Stories can come from “tabloids” (TMZ)

Question 36

Paparazzi

Answer 36

• Freelance photographers willing to go to any length to get a picture of a celebrity
• Now, many traditional news media outlets purchase more pictures from photo houses instead of sending their own photographers

Question 37

Mendelson article -

Answer 37

-Paparazzi act as a watchdog - doesn’t necessarily oppose them