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From Flashcardlet > ANATOMY CH 16 > Flashcards

ANATOMY CH 16 Flashcards

1
Q

Function Endocrine system

A

Controls body functions using chemical signaling. Called hormones

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2
Q

Endocrine Glands

A
  • made of epithelial tissue
  • make hormones and release them into blood stream
  • highly vascularized (maximizes secretion)
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3
Q

Unicellular endocrine glands

A 
•hormone producing cells located in non endocrine organs
•example: Leptin
    *signaling cell is adipocyte
    *target cell is neuron
    *effects: triggers satiety
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4
Q

Multicellular endocrine glands

A
  • ductless glands

* secrete hormone inside body

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5
Q

Cell-cell signaling

A

Electrical
Contact
Chemical

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6
Q

Electrical signaling

A

Electric currents pass from cell to cell

  • ion channels open and close
  • membrane potential changes
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7
Q

Contact signaling.

A
  • cells physically touch each other

- uses families of special membrane proteins

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8
Q

Chemical signaling

A
  • chemical signals are secreted by a particular cell

- cell surface receptors on a target cell bind to chemical signal

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9
Q

3 classes of chemical signals

A

Autocrine
Paracrine
Endocrine

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10
Q

Autocrine chemical signals

A
  • used by a cell to signal itself

- example: immune cells

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11
Q

Paracrine chemical messengers

A
  • chemical signals between two different cells in the same tissue
  • only act locally
  • example: neurotransmitter.
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12
Q

Endocrine chemical messengers

A
  • chemical signals released into the blood that regulate the metabolic properties of other cells
  • travel long distances through blood stream; usually more then one type of target cell
  • example:hormones
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13
Q

Amino acid based hormones

A
  • made of amino acids
  • examples: mostly hormones
    • hypothalamus/pituitary
    • assume aa based unless said otherwise
    • thyroid hormone
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14
Q

Characteristics of amino based hormones

A
  • almost always polar
    • have a charge
    • cant cross plasma membrane
    • bind to receptors on surface of cell
  • rapid response: seconds to minutes
  • cause short term changes
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15
Q

Steroid based hormones

A
  • made by cells using cholesterol.

- examples: sex hormones and hormones produced by adrenal cortex.

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16
Q

Characteristics of steroid based hormones

A
  • always nonpolar
    • no charge
    • can pass through plasma membrane
  • receptor located in cytoplasm
    • travels to nucleus to turn genes on and off
  • actions are slow; hours to days
  • cause long term changes
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17
Q

Thyroid hormones

A

-amino based
- made from tyrosine
-but non polar
-

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18
Q

General mechanism of hormone function (4 steps)

A
  1. Hormone usually made in signaling cell
  2. Hormone is released via exocytosis into blood stream
  3. Hormone travels to target cell and binds receptor
  4. Activation of receptor cause a change in target cell activity
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19
Q

Changes caused in target cells

A
  • change membrane potential. Open and close ion channels
  • cause new production of new enzymes/proteins
  • activate/deactivate enzymes
  • cause secretion
  • stimulate mitosis
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20
Q

Hormone release

A

Three types of stimuli can cause hormone release
•humoral
•neurol
•hormonal

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21
Q

Humoral stimuli

A
  • changes in blood characteristics causes hormone release
  • example: parathyroid hormone
    • low blood calcium cause release
    • target cells: osteoclasts increase activity
    • effect: increase blood calcium
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22
Q

Neural stimuli

A
  • input from neurons cause hormone release
  • example: epinephrine release
    • activation of the sympathetic nervous system causes release
    • effect: flight or fight response
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23
Q

Hormonal stimuli

A
  • an initial hormone causes the release of a second hormone
  • example: releasing hormones from hypothalamus
    • hypothalamus-pituitary- other endocrine glands
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24
Q

Target cell activation depends on three factors

A
  • hormone levels in blood - concentration
  • relative number of receptors on/in target cell
  • affinity between hormone and receptor
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25
Q

Pituitary gland structure

A
  • pea shaped gland
    • secretes at least 8 aa based hormones
  • posterior = neurohypophysis
    • made of neurons
      Anterior = adenohypophysis
    • made of glandular epithelial tissue
  • infundibulium
    • connects to hypothalamus
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26
Q

Anterior blood supply

A
  • hypophyseal portal system
    • anterior lobe linked to hypothalamus by blood vessels
    • primary capillary plexus- hypophyseal portal veins- secondary capillary plexus
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27
Q

Posterior pituitary hormones

A
  • made in neuro endocrine cells
    • special neurons that make
      hormone instead of
      neurotransmitter.
  • synthesized in cell bodies
    located in hypothalamus
  • travel down hypothalamic -
    hypophyseal tract
  • released into capillary bed of posterior pituitary.
  • released into capillary bed of posterior pituitary
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28
Q

Posterior pituitary hormone: oxytocin

A
  • synthesized in
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29
Q

Posterior pituitary hormone - oxytocin

A
  • synthesized in the paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus

- released from posterior pituitary

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30
Q

Effects of oxytocin

A
  • smooth muscle contraction
    • in the uterus causing birth
    • in breast tissue causing milk ejection
  • in brain acts as neurotransmitter
    • sexual and affectionate behavior
    • cuddle hormone
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31
Q

Control of oxytocin release

A
  • triggers
    • estrogens
    • mechanical stimulation of breast tissue
    • stretching of uterus/cervix
    • sight, smell, sound of baby
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32
Q

Medical implications of oxytocin

A
  • potocin
    • synthetic oxytocin used to speed labor
  • stress reduces oxytocin release
    • no milk let down
  • alcohol and THC slow oxytocin responses
    • brain responds slower
    • milk not let down during suckling
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33
Q

Posterior pituitary hormone: ADH

A
  • anti diuretic hormone
  • made in supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus
  • released from posterior pituitary
  • both oxytocin and ADH are amino acid based hormones
  • binds two types of receptors. Has two major effects
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34
Q

Effect 1 of ADH: kidneys make less urine

A
  • antidiuresis = low urine production
  • promotes water reabsorption in the kidneys
    • ADH opens water channels concentrating urine
      • high blood volume low urine output
  • caused by binding V2 receptors
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35
Q

Effect 2 of ADH: vasoconstriction

A
  • causes the contraction of vascular smooth muscle
    • increases blood pressure
  • caused by binding V1 receptors
  • large amounts of ADH released during severe blood loss
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36
Q

Control of ADH release

A
  • cause ADH release
    • high blood osmolarity
      • blood too concentrated
      • need more water in blood
    • low blood volume
      • need to increase water in blood
    • nicotine
      • smoking increases fluid retention thus blood pressure
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37
Q

Medical implications of ADH

A
  • diabetes insipidus
    • caused by lack of ADH
    • symptom: polyuria
      • excessive, dilute urine
  • example
    • head trauma damages pituitary or supraoptic nucleus
    • patients have extreme thirst and increased urination
    • treat with desmopressin
      • synthetic ADH
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38
Q

Medical implications of ADH

A
  • ethanol inhibits release of ADH
    • blocks voltage gated calcium channels on neurons
  • dramatically increases urine production
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39
Q

Anterior pituitary

A
  • contains 5 different cell types
    • producing 6 different hormones
  • all regulated by hormones released by neurons in the ventral
    hypothalamus
    • hormonal regulation of hormone release
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40
Q

Anterior pituitary hormone: GH

A
  • growth hormone
  • produced by somatotropic cells of the anterior pituitary
  • upon release travels through blood stream
  • stimulates tissue building
    • anabolic
    • both metabolic and growth promoting actions
41
Q

Regulation of GH release

A
  • regulated by hypothalamus hormones
  • GH releasing hormone
    • GHRH
    • stimulates release
  • somatostatin (SIRF)
    • inhibits release
42
Q

GH directly causes metabolic changes

A
  • increases blood sugar
    • anti-insulin effects
      • decrease glucose uptake
      • increases glucose release from liver
  • increases metabolism of fats
    • released from adipose tissue
43
Q

GH growth enhancing effects are indirect mediated by IGFs

A
  • Insulin-like growth factors ( IGFs)
    • GH stimulates release from liver
  • IGFs cause:
    • bone and skeletal muscle growth
    • tissue repair
44
Q

Too much GH

A
  • gigantism
    • before end of puberty
    • excessive growth is proportional
  • acromegaly
    • after puberty - cant grow taller
    • enlarged hands, feet and face
  • both caused by pituitary tumors
45
Q

Too little GH

A
  • pituitary dwarfism
    • before end of puberty
    • growth is still proportional
    • rare genetic mutations prevent GH synthesis
46
Q

Anterior pituitary hormone: adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A
  • produced by corticotropic cells in anterior pituitary
  • stimulates release of corticosteroids
    • from adrenal cortex
    • most famous - cortisol
47
Q

Regulation of ACTH release

A
  • hypothalamus produces corticotropin-releasing hormone ( CRH)
  • CRH causes corticotrophs to release ACTH
  • ACTH causes adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids
48
Q

Medical implication of ACTH

A
  • CRH release is regulated by circadian rhythms.
  • stress increases CRH release
  • results in inappropriate release of corticosteroids
  • causes symptoms associated with stress. High blood pressure
    Low immune function.
49
Q

Anterior pituitary hormone: thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

A
  • produced by thyrotropic cells in anterior
    pituitary.
  • stimulates growth and activity of thyroid
    -release regulated by Thyroid releasing
    hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus
50
Q

anterior pituitary hormone: gonadotropins (FSH and LH)

A

follicle stimulating hormone
luteinizing hormone
- both regulate funcion of gonads

51
Q

regulation of FSH and LH release

A 
-hypothalamus produces gonadotropin 
   releasing hormone (GnRH)
-activates gonadotropic cells in anterior 
  pituitary
52
Q

medical implications of GnRH

A
  • GnRH production triggers puberty
    -The release of GnRH is pulsatile
    -constant high levels of GnRH causes
    gonadotropic cells to become unresponsive
53
Q

anterior pituitary hormone: Prolactin (PRL)

A
  • produced by prolactin cells
  • triggers production of breast milk
    -PRL secretion under inhibitory control by
    dopamine from hypothalamus
  • PRL release caused by drop in dopamine
54
Q

Thyroid Gland - Anatomy

A
  • Located in the anterior neck on trachea
  • largest pure endocrine gland in body
  • composed of two lateral lobes - each
    filled with millions of follicles
    -isthmus connects two lobes
55
Q

structure of thyroid follicles

A
  • hollow spheres inside thyroid
  • outer edges are epithelial cells
  • inner hollow center is colloid which
    contains throglobulin
    -parafollicular cells are smashed between
    follicles. These produce calcitonin (c-cells)
56
Q

thyroid hormone (TH)

A

-made from thyrogobulin
- a large protein precursor
- thyrogobulin gets iodinated on 2 linked
tyrosine residues
-T3 - 3 iodines are added to form
triiodothyronine. Most potent
-T4 - 4 iodines are added to form
thyroxine. most common

57
Q

effects of TH

A
  • affects most body systems
  • makes all cells burn more energy
    • increases basal metabolic rate
      -produces body heat
      -critical for prepubescent growth
      -self regulation - once made feeds back to
      turn off signal - inhibits TRH release
  • prevents overproduction of TH
58
Q

TH released in response to:

A
  • TRH/TSH from hypothalamus/pituitary
  • conditions that increase energy
    requirements generally increase TH levels
    • pregnanacy
    • cold temperatures
59
Q

medical implications of TH - hypothyroidism

A
  • low function of thyroid gland
  • in adults causes myxedema - swelling of
    the mucus membranes
  • low metabolism
  • in infants causes cretinism
    • permanent retardation
    • stunted growth
    • lack of iodine in food/soil
60
Q

medical implications of TH - hyperthyroidism

A
  • excessive high function of thyroid gland
    • wasting, tremors, nervousness
      -can be due to Graves disease
      -autoimmune disease - antibodies
      mimic TSH causing bug eyes
61
Q

medical implications of TH - Goiter

A
  • noncancerous overgrowth of thyroid
    -due to lack of dietary iodine
  • thyroid can’t make TH - accumulating
    more colloid
62
Q

Thyroid Gland Hormone - Calcitonin

A 
- hormone released by parafollicular cells 
    (C-cells)
- lowers blood calcium levels
- works by decreasing osteoclast activity 
   so more calcium ends up in bone
- released in response to high blood 
   calcium
- most important in children
63
Q

Parathyroid Glands

A 
- small yellow-brown glands on posterior of 
   thyroid
-most people have 4, some have 8
- can be in neck or thorax
- produces parathyroid hormone PTH
64
Q

effects of parathyroid hormone PTH

A
  • increases blood calcium by removing from
    bone
  • by increasing calcium, reabsorption in
    kidneys and gut
  • released in response to low blood calcium
65
Q

Adrenal Glands - Anatomy

A
  • pyramid shaped organs on top of kidney
  • divided into two endocrine glands
    1. Adrenal Cortex - produces 3 types of
      corticosteriods
    2. Central Medulla - part of autonomic
      nervous system. Produces
      epi/norepinephrine
66
Q

Adrenal cortex - zona glomerculosa

A
  • outermost layer
    -produces mineralocorticoids
    • regulates sodium absorption and
      potassium excretion
    • example: aldosterone
67
Q

Aldosterone effects

A
  • alters kidney function
  • reduces excretion of sodium from body
  • increases excretion of potassium
68
Q

Aldosterone released in response to:

A
  • low blood sodium
  • high blood potassium
  • low blood volume/pressure
  • Renin - Andiotensin mechanism
69
Q

Aldosterone - Medical implications

A
  • hypersecretion causes:
    • Edema
    • hypertension
    • weakness and paralysis
70
Q

Adrenal cortex - Zona fasciculata

A
  • middle layer
  • produces glucocorticoids
    • stress hormone
    • example, cortisol
71
Q

Effects of Cortisol

A
  • increased blood sugar
  • increased blood pressure
  • suppression of immune system
  • Inhibits CRH
72
Q

Cortisol released in response to

A
  • CRH to ACTH
  • hormone regulation of hormones
  • release increased in response to major stress
73
Q

Adrenal cortex - Zona retucularis

A
  • inner layer
  • produces gonadocorticoids
    • weak sex hormone
    • example androstenedione
74
Q

Androstenedione effects

A 
- weak affinity for androgen (testosterone) 
    receptor
- can be converted to more potent sex 
    hormones at the gonads
- contributes to hair growth at puberty
- only source of estrogen at menopause
75
Q

androstenedione is released in response to:

A
  • aging - levels increase between 7 and 13
  • insignificant compared to amounts made
    by gonads during puberty
76
Q

Androstenedione - Medical implications

A
  • too much causes adrenogenital syndrome:
    • pushes secondary male
      characteristics noticible in young girls
77
Q

Adrenal Medulla

A
  • filled with neuroendocrine cells
  • found here and hypothalamus/posterior
    pituitary
78
Q

Epinephrine / Norepinephrine

A
  • tyrosine derived hormones
    -released upon activation of the
    sympathetic nervous system
    -released in 80% / 20% ratio
79
Q

Epinephrine/ Norepinephrine effects

A
  • increases blood sugar
  • increases heart rate / blood pressure
  • diverts blood from skin and gut to
    muscles and organs
80
Q

Epinephrine/ Norepinephrine released in response to:

A
  • short - term stress

- example of neural control of hormone release

81
Q

Pancreas - Anatomy

A
  • mix of exocrine and endocrine
  • located partially behind the stomach on
    left side of abdomen
  • Exocrine glands secrete digestive
    enzymes
  • endocrine cells in Islets of Langerhans
    Alpha and Beta cells
82
Q

Pancreas - Alpha Cells

A
  • less common cell type
  • make peptide hormone called glucagon
    which targets the liver
83
Q

Glucagon causes

A 
- glycogenolysis - breakdown of glycogen   
  to  glucose
- gluconeiogenisis - de novo glucose 
   synthesis. Release of glucose into 
   blood. Most potent of the 4 hormones 
   that increase blood sugar
84
Q

glucagon is released in response to

A
  • low blood glucose - normal level 90mg/dl
  • sympathetic nervous system activity -
    powers body during stress
85
Q

Pancreas - Beta Cells

A
  • most common
  • secrete insulin
    • small protein hormone
    • regulates blood glucose levels
86
Q

Insulin effects

A
  • decreases blood sugar
  • activates insulin dependent glucose
    transport channels (GLUTs) in skeletal
    muscle and adipose tissue
  • Insulin independent GLUTs are in brain,
    liver and kidney
87
Q

Insulin is released in response to:

A
  • high blood sugar - above 100mg/dl
  • parasympathetic responses
    • resting and digesting means store
      sugar for later
88
Q

Diabetes mellitus

A
  • occurs when blood glucose levels are too
    high
  • glucose in blood means cells are starving
  • cells metabolize proteins and fats as last
    resort
  • symptoms:
    • polyuria
    • polydipsia
    • polyphagia
89
Q

Type 1 diabetes mellitus

A
  • beta cells killed by autoimmune response
  • symptoms appear before age 15
  • treated with insulin injections
  • pancreatic islet cell transplants
  • 10% of diabetes mellitus cases
90
Q

Type 2 diabetes

A
  • usually due to chronic high blood sugar
  • cells become insulin resistant
  • cells starve because glucose remains in
    blood
  • treated with diet and exercise
91
Q

type 2 diabetes mellitus - treatments with medication

A
  • increase levels of insulin to overcome
    insulin resistance
    -injections
    - stimulate beta cells to make more
    insulin
  • decrease amount of sugar entering blood
    stream
    - inhibit absorption in intestines
    - inhibit glucose released by liver
92
Q

Anterior Pituitary - GH

A

target cells: somatotroph. stimulates growth of body tissues, skeletal muscle and bone. Acts directly or indirectly via insulin like growth factors (IGF). Regulated by growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH). Inhibited by somatostatin (SIRF). Hypersecretion causes gigantism in childrem and acromely in adults. Hyposecretion causes pituitary dwarism

93
Q

Anterior Pituitary - TSH

A

Target cells - thyrotroph.Thyroid stimulating hormone promotes development and activity of thyroid. Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) stimulates release. negative feedback from thryoid inhibits it

94
Q

Anterior Pituitary - ACTH

A

corticotroph. adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids. Release triggered by corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and inhibited by rising glucocorticoid levels

95
Q

Anterior Pituitary - FSH

A

gonadotroph. follicle stimulating hormone stimulates cell production. levels rise in response to gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

96
Q

Anterior Pituitary - LH

A

gonadotroph. luteinizing hormone stimulates gonadal hormone production

97
Q

Anterior Pituitary - PRL

A

lactotroph. prolactin promotes milk production. secretion is prompted by prolactin releasing hormone (PRL)

98
Q

posterior pituitary oxytocin

A

paraventicular nucleus of hypothalamus. stimulated by stretching of uterus.

99
Q

posterior pituitary ADH

A

anti diuretic hormone. from supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus. stimulated by increase osmolarity of blood or decreased blood volume. inhibited by alcohol. Target organ is kidney

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