5- Memory

Question 1

What is prospective memory?

Answer 1

Prospective memory is remembering to do something. Involves linking an external stimulus (time point/location) to an action plan.

Question 2

How is prospective memory linked to executive function?

Answer 2

Inhibition (e.g. impulse control) shifting from one task to another, planning, strategizing, generating ideas.

Question 3

What conditions are associated with impaired prospective memory?

Answer 3

TBI
Multiple Sclerosis
Dementia
ADHD
Autism

Question 4

What is the model for retrospective memory?

Answer 4

The Tulving Model
We divide retrospective memory into:
1. Duration i.e. Short-term vs long-term
2. Explicit (under voluntary control, amenable to conscious reflection) vs implicit (not under voluntary control)

Question 5

All memory systems are prone to interference. What does this mean?

Answer 5

There is competition between “similar” information.

Question 6

What is episodic memory?

Answer 6

Memory for “lived experience”. Involves detailed representation e.g. the taste of your breakfast this morning. Episodic memories is triggered by sensations.

Question 7

Episodic memory is often characterised by autonoetic consciousness, what does this mean?

Answer 7

Autonoetic consciousness- as well as remembering events you have the sense that you were actually there. It involves projecting yourself in time.

Question 8

What is semantic memory?

Answer 8

General world knowledge i.e. word meanings, concepts, facts, memory of word forms, voices, faces.

Question 9

Compare/contrast episodic and semantic memory

Answer 9

Episodic memory= detailed representation of lived experience (1st person perspective) and involves autonoetic consciousness.
Whereas, semantic memory is more abstract.
Episodic memory more prone to forgetting, information may be transferred to semantic memory, but loses some rich detail e.g. For a child “dog” may refer to the family’s pet dog (strongly episodic representation)

Over time a more abstract meaning of “dog” is stored in semantic memory

Question 10

What is the evidence for episodic/semantic distinction?

Answer 10

Patients with damage to medial temporal lobes have no ability to acquire new episodic memories (anterograde episodic memory) and have poor premorbid episodic memory (retrograde episodic memory) but semantic memory is relatively spared.

Question 11

What is procedural memory?

Answer 11

Procedural memory= long term and implicit. It is automatic and unconscious and mainly motor tasks e.g. putting a code in a door, typing. (had to learn where keys were first and this is now in procedural memory)

Question 12

Patient HM (procedural-declarative distinction). + Procedural memory difficulty with DLD children

Answer 12

Pre-surgery retrograde episodic and semantic memory partially effected, post surgery anterograde memory substantially effected but procedural memory spared. E.G. he learnt how to mirror write but could not recall training sessions.

DLD- difficulties with procedural memory which will affect sentence structure, syntax, morphology.

Question 13

What is working memory?

Answer 13

Working memory is a limited capacity system that is capable of briefly storing and manipulating information involved in the performance of complex cognitive tasks e.g. reasoning, comprehension.

Question 14

How do working memory and STM differ?

Answer 14

Working memory assumes both storage AND manipulation/processing of information. Whereas short term memory is purely storage of information. STM is involved in serial recall (remembering things in correct order).

Question 15

Baddeley and Hitch- multicomponent model for working memory.

Answer 15

The central executive

The episodic buffer (for episodic LTM)

The visuospatial sketchpad (concerned with visual storage and processing/visual semantics) +

The phonological loop (acoustic equivalent for language).

Question 16

What is the phonological loop?

Answer 16

Two parts. A short-term PHONOLOGICAL STORE that maintains info in that store
+ An ARTICULATORY CONTROL PROCESS where we sub-vocally repeat the info in order to retain it (silent repetition of stimulus). Measured by non-word repetition.

Question 17

Evidence for phonological loop?

Answer 17

Strongly correlated with word-learning in children aged 4-5
We need to store new words for a sufficient length of time in order to “extract phonological regularities”
Very poor non-word repetition in children with DLD.

Evidence of phonological store= the phonological similarity effect, whereby people are less accurate in repeating back sequences of similar-sounding words such as MAN CAP CAT MAT CAN, than dissimilar words such as PIT DAY COW PEN TOP.

Evidence for the importance of rehearsal/ articulatory control = the word length effect, whereby immediate recall of long words (e.g. REFRIGERATOR UNIVERSITY TUBERCULOSIS OPPORTUNITY HIPPOPOTAMUS) is much more error-prone than for short words.

Question 18

How does the phonological loop support acquisition of language?

Answer 18

Provides temporary means of storing new words while they are consolidated in phonological LTM

Question 19

SLI impaired children deficit in…

Answer 19

Repeating non words due to impaired phonological STM

Question 20

What is the episodic buffer?

Answer 20

Storage system It accounts for story recall in patients with anterograde amnesia (could not form new memories)

Question 21

What is the visuospatial sketchpad?

Answer 21

Visual working memory designed to support any task that involves short-term maintenance of visual information. It creates and maintains a visuospatial representation that we can use when attempting to answer questions such as describe the route you take home.

Question 22

Where is the Visuospatial sketch pad suspected to be located?

Answer 22

Right hemisphere- visual occipital and parietal (spatial aspects)

Question 23

What is the central executive?

Answer 23

An attentional control system that has the role of controlling action. Does not have storage capacity itself.

Behaviour that is routine and habitual is controlled automatically by a range of schemas, well-learned processes that allow us to respond appropriately to the environment. An experienced driver on a routine trip would be a good example of this, sometimes arriving at the destination with no memory of the journey. When such procedures are no longer adequate, for example finding the normal route blocked by an accident, a second system, the Supervisory Attentional System (SAS) comes into operation. This is capable of using long-term knowledge in order to set up possible solutions, and reflect on them before choosing the best. In the case of our interrupted journey, this might involve the central executive of working memory, probably in connection with LTM, the visuospatial sketchpad, and possibly the phonological loop

Question 24

What is echoic memory?

Answer 24

Memory for sensory representations- decays very rapidly

Question 25

What is autobiographical memory?

Answer 25

Memory of information/ events which are unique to us. Helps us to make sense of who we are. Information distributed across episodic and semantic memory system.

Question 26

What is cultural memory?

Answer 26

Our personal memories are “entwined” with cultural memories e.g... What were you doing when X happened? Distributed cognition = “offloading” our memories to external cultural artefacts.

Question 27

What is "choking" in sports?

Answer 27

Choking is the explicit analysis of skills and routines which would typically be represented in procedural memory (in an implicit fashion). It is when procedural memory fails- something that should be implicit becomes explicit due to stress/pressure.

Question 28

Considering paradigms of memory, what is more difficult recall or recognition?

Answer 28

Recall- it establishes stronger memories

Question 29

Tests for short-term memory

Answer 29

Complex span tasks (shown a complex figure then client must copy it from memory) Nonword repetition Digit recall + backwards digit recall

Question 30

Tests for episodic memory

Answer 30

1. Paired associate learning (the associations are completely random so have to use episodic rather than semantic) 2. Picture sequence memory test (series of pictures with no obvious sequence so to remember must use episodic rather than semantic)

Question 31

Tests for semantic memory

Answer 31

1. Word fluency (but note influence of central executive) 2. Picture naming 3. Synonym judgements e.g. red/scarlett 4. Conceptual tasks e.g. drawing from memory, providing word definitions, Pyramids and Palm Trees.

Question 32

Tests of Procedural Memory

Answer 32

1. Serial reaction time task 2. Pursuit Rotor Task 3. Tower of Hanoi (proceduralisation). Starts out being explicit task using working mem/central executive but overtime becomes proceduralised= faster reaction times.

Question 33

Relating to memory, why is sentence repetition the best marker of language impairment?

Answer 33

People w language impairment will make changes to words and structure of the sentence. The issue lies with LTM not STM/Working memory. Working memory too fragile to support language processing. Have to reconstruct the sentence you heard from information in LTM.

Question 34

What is the process called where you repeat previously heard structures?

Answer 34

STUCTURAL/ SYNTACTIC PRIMING. It involves representations in long-term memory, because short term memory is insufficient to support recall, sentence repetition involves the reconstruction of the sentence based on activated representations in long-term memory.

Question 35

What is chunking?

Answer 35

The process of combining multiple items into a single item in order to facilitate processing and recall of information. It is a solution to the fragility of short term memory.

Question 36

Long-term memory disorders- EPISODIC MEMORY DISORDERS

Answer 36

AMNESIA Not dementia because its not progressive. Problems with memory for events, episodes in own life (autobiographical memory) and world at large (extra personal memory)

Question 37

Location of lesions in AMNESIA

Answer 37

Associated with lesions in: Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, mammillary nuclei) Medial temporal lobes (hippocampus, amygdala) Frontal Lobe

Question 38

Medial temporal lobe structure

Answer 38

Hippocampus, amygdala and nearby cortical areas: entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortex

Question 39

What is Anterograde Amnesia?

Answer 39

Poor recollection about events AFTER onset Cannot retain NEW INFORMATION- novel addresses, word list, story content, faces Recognition vs recall- have you seen/heard this before (easy) vs what did you see/hear before (difficult) Poor SUBSEQUENT learning

Question 40

How to assess anterograde amnesia

Answer 40

List, fact, address or story recall. Route learning Immediate vs delayed recall Recounting day's activities

Question 41

Functional difficulties of people with anterograde amnesia:

Answer 41

Daily routine, meals, pills, visitors, appointments, time, can't learn new routine

Question 42

What is retrograde amnesia?

Answer 42

Poor recollection about events BEFORE onset about own life (autobiographical). Particular difficulty remembering if they happened and when they happened in relation to other events Recognise famous people/events Subsequent learning is fine- can relearn about their past

Question 43

How is retrograde amnesia assessed?

Answer 43

Autobiographical memory interview Recognition of time limited events Ordering events in time

Question 44

Long-term memory disorders- SEMANTIC MEMORY DISORDERS

Answer 44

SEMANTIC DEMENTIA: Profound affect on language (spoken + written) and other aspects of communication (gesture, signing). Affects word meanings. Semantic dementia is a subtype of primary progressive aphasia. Rare "category specific" semantic deficits.

Question 45

Location of lesions in SEMANTIC MEMORY DISORDERS/ SEMANTIC DEMENTIA

Answer 45

Anterior and inferior temporal lobe. Particularly left infero-lateral temporal lobe.

Question 46

What is echoing?

Answer 46

Repetition of what conversation partner has said. Common in semantic dementia as it bypasses the semantic system

Question 47

Test for semantic memory. Super-ordinate, sub-ordinate conceptual test

Answer 47

Super-ordinate e.g. Which is the animal? (1 pic of a frog, 2 of vegetables) is the easiest. Sub-ordinate e.g. Which is the insect? (1 pic of insect, 2 of fish) more difficulty Which is the largest? (3 animals that look same size on pictures) is most difficult as have to use your semantic knowledge.

Question 48

Semantic memory DEFINING WORDS TEST

Answer 48

Better at defining abstract words than concrete words. Low frequency words worse than high frequency in both categories.

Question 49

In people with semantic memory disorders, schemas can be relatively intact- what are schemas?

Answer 49

Part of semantic memory, over learnt routines for example eating. A well integrated chunk of knowledge about the world, events, people or actions. 1. Scripts: knowledge about events and consequences of events e.g. know not to put hand on candle. 2. Frames: knowledge structures referring to some aspects of the world (e.g. building) containing fixed structural information.

Question 50

Is Alzheimer's disease impaired episodic or impaired semantic memory?

Answer 50

BOTH. Impaired semantic memory is a common feature but is invariably overshadowed by episodic memory deficit.

Question 51

Give examples of assessment for semantic memory

Answer 51

Must measure performance across a range of modalities since tasks can yield sub-normal performance sue to impairments in other processes that must interact with semantic knowledge, such as visual perception or speech production. CONSISTENTLY POOR PERFORMANCE across tests Tests: 1) Category fluency e.g. tell me the names of as many animals you can think of in one minute 2) Confrontation naming 3) Naming to description 4) Picture Sorting at superordinate, category and sub-ordinate levels 5) Verification of semantic attribute questions: does an elephant lay eggs? 6) Word-picture matching 7) Generation of verbal definitions 8) Tests of associative semantics: the patient is asked to match a target item (e.g. an elephant) with one of two alter-native response choices (e.g. a circus tent or a farm).

Question 52

Category fluency often impaired in early course of AD, explain this pattern.

Answer 52

AD patients are significantly more impaired in category than letter fluency, although both of these tasks require the adequate functions of attention, working memory, etc. Patients with other forms of dementia involving mainly subcortical structures (Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, progressive supranuclear palsy, etc.) show the opposite pattern (more correct responses to categories than to letters)‘“.

Question 53

What is Herpes Simplex encephalitis

Answer 53

HSVE is a brain infection. Results in category specific loss of semantic memory. Disproportionate loss of knowledge about "natural kinds" (living things such as animals, fruits, vegetables) with relative preservation of knowledge about artefacts (inanimate objects such as house-hold items or tools). Neuroanatomically, this aligns with HSVE damage typically being in ventral temporal structures, distinct from the inferior parietal region damaged in strokes that don't usually cause this category effect. This suggests separate brain areas for these types of knowledge. Functional imaging (PET) studies further back this up, showing different temporal vs. parietal activation for tasks involving living things vs. objects

Question 54

Short -term memory disorders: what is the sentence superiority effect?

Answer 54

Being able to repeat sentences rather than random words. Means involvement in LTM rather than short term. SO THERE IS DOUBLE DISSOCIATION BETWEEN LISTS AND SENTENCES

Question 55

Short-term memory disorders: auditory repetition span (serial recall)

Answer 55

Auditory-verbal and auditory-pointing showed same pattern, repetition of one item okay, worse as number of items increased.

Question 56

What is semantic dementia?

Answer 56

Deterioration of semantic memory. Decline in both ability to understand and express language as well as recognise familiar objects and people. Spontaneous speech categorised as "empty" with word finding difficulties and occasional semantic errors, but is fluent with normal articulation and phonology. Despite the widespread loss of conceptual knowledge, other cognitive functions like visuospatial skills, executive functions, short-term memory, and nonverbal problem-solving abilities are generally preserved in semantic dementia. This distinguishes it from conditions like Alzheimer’s disease, where multiple cognitive domains are affected. Unlike AD, preserved episodic memory. Brain imaging studies reveal focal atrophy in the anterior and infero-lateral temporal lobes.

Question 57

What brain regions are crucial for semantic memory function?

Answer 57

Infero-lateral regions of the temporal lobes. Left infero-lateral temporal lobe. Additionally, some evidence suggests that the antero-lateral right temporal lobe may be specifically involved in the representation of person-specific knowledge. difficulty in face recognition (prosopagnosia),

Question 58

What research supports a double dissociation between word lists and sentences?

Answer 58

STM disorder- showed sentence superiority effect, better able to repeat sentences with many words rather than a list of random words. Due to involvement of LTM, rather than STM for sentence recall.

Question 59

What are the features of phonological versus semantic short-term memory disorders?

Answer 59

Martin & Allen (2008) Phonological STM impairment= better performance in semantic probe than rhyme probe task. Better performance with short words than long words. Better performance in span-tasks with words rather than non-words. Semantic STM impairment= better performance in rhyme probe than semantic prove tasks. NO length effect, similar performance between word/non-word tasks.

Question 60

"Complex" working memory task= COMPLEX SPAN TASK, what is this?

Answer 60

Simultaneously processing sentences (with verification questions) and remembering the last word of each. High correlation between performance on this task and reading comprehension of complex sentences