5. Reconstructive memory

Question 1

What did Bartlett theorise

Answer 1

• culture, experiences, beliefs impact memory

Question 2

What is reconstructive memory theory?

Answer 2

• Active construction based on a person’s schema rather than a passive, 100% accurate record

Question 3

What is a schema?

Answer 3

• A structured framework / blueprint that helps organise and interpret info
• Used to help us understand world around us, forming the structural components of human memory
• Represents some aspect of the world (event, concept, relationship)
• Unique to an individual and their previous knowledge, interpretations, expectations, motivations

Question 4

Describe reconstructive memory and when and why memories become distorted

Answer 4

• NOT like a recording where we mentally play back events and perfectly recall them as they did occur
• Memory distorted in encoding phase
• Change over time according to our schema and during recall - make more sense to us

Question 5

What is the process of distortion for memories?

Answer 5

• Memories have gaps in them and when recalled our schemas influence these gaps
• We automatically, unconsciously fill in these memory gaps with info from our schemas (eg: stereotypes, social / cultural expectations) as memory now fits better with what know
• Producing distorted memories which we accept as real

Question 6

What do we tend to remember about events?

Answer 6

• Meaning of events rather than specific details

Question 7

Aim (WoTG)

Answer 7

• Investigate how memory reconstructed when people asked to recall something repeatedly over a period of weeks/ months
• Use an unfamiliar story from a diff. culture to see how cultural expectations affect memory and can alter info

Question 8

Method

Answer 8

• 20 participants (students from Cambridge Uni) showed a story (WoTG) and asked to reproduce it 15 minutes later

Question 9

2 reproduction methods for WoTG

Answer 9

1. Serial reproduction: one person tells story to another person and shows them the new version of the story, chain continues
2. Repeated reproduction: single participant had to recall story multiple times over a period (weeks, months)

Question 10

Culture

Answer 10

• Bartlett’s story probably felt hard to remember because it was from a different, unfamiliar culture (Native American)
• Test if memory could be reconstructed using cultural norms

Question 11

Results

Answer 11

• participants found difficult to remember bits of story such as spirits and changed other bits
• story overall was shortened
• the alterations often fit into their own beliefs/ experiences/ culture (eg: canoe to boat)

Question 12

Conclusion

Answer 12

• If given something unfamiliar to remember, alter info - memory is influenced by beliefs and what we are used to
• People remember fragments of memories and reconstruct them based on what they expect to happen/ cultural expectations

Question 13

What can occur to memories due to reconstruction?

Answer 13

• Omission
• Rationalisation
• Transformation
• Familiarisation
• Confabulation

Question 14

Omission

Answer 14

Leaving out information that you did not understand

Question 15

Rationalisation

Answer 15

Making the illogical become logical to your own beliefs

Question 16

Transformation

Answer 16

Changing ideas into conventional and cultural concepts

Question 17

Familiarisation

Answer 17

When unfamiliar details are changed to align with our own schemas

Question 18

Confabulation

Answer 18

Making up bits to fill in a memory to make sense of it

Question 19

What are the 4 aspects of RMT

Answer 19

• Reconstruction
• Memory inaccurate
• Social and cultural influences
• Effort after meaning

Question 20

Reconstruction

Answer 20

• Every time memory is recalled - reconstructed from small, recorded info fragments
• pieced together slightly differently every time memory is recalled as demonstrated in WoTG study

Question 21

Memory is inaccurate

Answer 21

• Memories don’t work like a recording (ie: passive process) - INSTEAD active process as stored fragments/ info snapshots with memories missing lots of info can be inaccurate

Question 22

Social and cultural influences

Answer 22

• Used cultural schemas to reconstruct memories (eg: WoTG study canoe = boat)

Question 23

Effort after meaning

Answer 23

1. Recall meaning of event
2. Then make an effort to piece the story together from fragments

Question 24

Supporting evidence (Loftus and Palmer) -

Answer 24

(1974): conducted lab experiments to illustrate RM and how influenced by questioning techniques used by police
- 45 participants shown films of traffic accidents and asked to recall what seen (independent groups design)
- Asked: ‘How fast were the cars travelling when they HIT/ SMASHED into each other?’
- Participants asked with ‘hit’ on average gave a slower speed compared to ‘smash’ despite watching same video

Question 25

Credibility

Answer 25

- Bartlett's research did not use standardised/ controlled/ replicable methods, lacking objectivity due to researcher bias - Participants did not all have same experience therefore difficult to compare reproductions - Means evidence underlying RM lacks reliability + But better controlled studies since been supportive

Question 26

Other explanations

Answer 26

- Not all memories inaccurate/ affected by schemas - Theory of Flashbulb memory: states vivid memory about emotionally, culturally, historically significant event occurs - People can often experience them and recall photographic detail (eg: what doing when event occurred) - Shows may not actively reconstruct memories, can be accurately recalled and not influenced by expectations all the time

Question 27

Debates

Answer 27

+ Research into RM more realistic than laboratory research into memory + Findings therefore more relevant to real-life processes and demonstrate the social origins of memory + Increasing ecological validity and mundane realism + Also been conducted in an empirical manner and can be falsified + Schema theory contributed to nature-nurture debate by focusing on role of experience, culture and upbringing

Question 28

Application

Answer 28

+ Explain problems with EyeWT & EarWT + As schema can affect memory - question reliability and accuracy of the testimonies witnesses can give + Led to judicial progress as convictions can no longer be given based on singular EWT alone + Cognitive Interview also been developed to help increase accuracy of memory