Biopsychology Flashcards
What is the function of the PNS? Give an example.
Sends information from the outside world to the CNS and transmits messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the body.
Eg. Tells the muscles to pick up a spoon.
What is the function of the somatic nervous system? Give an example.
To transmit information from receptor cells in the sense organs to the CNS. It also receives information from the CNS that directs muscles to act.
Eg. The act of picking up the spoon.
What is the function of the autonomic nervous system? Give an example.
To transmit information to and from internal bodily organs. This operates automatically. There are two divisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic.
What is the function of the CNS? Give an example.
It is the origin of all complex commands and decisions, consisting of the brain and spinal cord.
Eg. Deciding whether to pick up a spoon.
What is the autonomic nervous system divided into?
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM-increases bodily activities.
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM-maintains or decreases bodily activities.
What is the function of a neuron?
To receive and transmit information to other cells.
What are the three types of neuron?
SENSORY-to tell the brain about the external and internal environment by processing information from the senses.
RELAY-carry messages from one part of the CNS to another and they connect relay and motor neurons.
MOTOR-carry signals from the CNS, which helps both organs, including glands and muscles, function.
What can the PNS be split into?
SOMATIC NS - transmits information to and from senses, and to and from CNS.
AUTONOMIC NS - transmits information to and from internal organs to sustain life processes.
What is synaptic transmission?
The process by which nerve impulses are carried across the small gap (synapse) between one neuron and another. The electrical nerve impulse travels down the neurone and prompts the release of neurotransmitters at the pre-synaptic terminal. These chemicals are released into the synaptic fluid and taken up by the adjacent neurone at the synaptic terminal and the chemical is converted again to an electrical impulse.
What are the two types of messages (action potential) of the neurotransmitters?
EXCITATORY POTENTIAL - make it more likely for the neuron to fire.
INHIBITORY POTENTIAL - make the neuron less likely to fire.
What is the endocrine system? Give an example.
A system which has a series of glands which release chemicals (hormones) throughout the body via the blood and other bodily fluids. This communicates messages to the organs of the body.
Eg. The adrenal gland releases adrenaline for the fight or flight response.
What are the steps for the fight or flight response?
- The HYPOTHALAMUS (deals with basic survival functions) recognises there is a threat
- The adrenal medulla triggers the release of adrenaline.
- Adrenaline prompts physical changes (eg.increased heart rate, breathing, muscle tension, pupil dilation, sweat production, reduced functioning of digestive and immune systems).
What is the structure of a neuron?
The NUCLEUS contains genetic information of the cell. Branch-like structures, called DENDRITES, protrude from the cell body and carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons to the cell body. The AXON then sends this impulse away from the cell body down the length of the neuron. This is covered in the MYELIN SHEATH which protects the axon and speeds up electrical transmission of the impulse. This is segmented by gaps called NODES OF RANVIER which forces the impulse to ‘jump’ across the gaps. At the end of the axon is an AXON TERMINAL which communicate with the next neuron in the chain across the synapse.
What is the central nervous system?
Comprises of the brain and the spinal cord.
What is the peripheral nervous system?
Includes all of the nervous system throughout the rest of the body.
What does the autonomic nervous system split into?
Sympathetic nervous system: generally increases bodily activities.
Parasympathetic nervous system: generally maintains or decreases bodily activities.
Who found evidence for why you can’t perceive when you’re touched in two different places simultaneously?
Yamamoto and Kitazawa - if someone is touched simultaneously on the toe and shoulder you can’t tell which was touched first and it feels like they were touched at different times. It is argued that this is because of the difference between the distance from the brain.
Research in the endocrine system
Feldman et al - The hormone oxytocin from the pituitary gland elicits a feeling of relaxation and calm and encourages strong bonding between mother and child.
Evaluation of biological structures effecting behaviour.
It is hard to find a cause and effect relationship (eg we can find a correlation between oxytocin levels and increased relationship intensity, but not that oxytocin causes this. It could be argued that forming a relationship causes an increase in oxytocin levels).
It could be argued that using biological structures to underpin human behaviour can be seen as reductionist. This means that it is overly simplistic, because human behaviour and cognition is complex.
The reliability of this approach is high because evidence is totally objective.
How does the short term stressor work in the fight or flight response?
The amygdala (in the brain) registers a threat and starts the sympathetic nervous system working. As a result, the adrenal glands release adrenaline. Once the short term stressor disappears, the parasympathetic nervous system will kick in and inhibit all of the bodily responses.
How does the long term (chronic) stressor work in the fight or flight response?
If the stressor continues for a long period of time then the body must find new resources before it runs out of energy and dies. To do this, the hypothalamus kicks in and informs the pituitary gland that cart idol is needed. The pituitary gland will communicate with the adrenal cortex to release cortisol. This turns stored fat into energy for use in fighting off the stressor for longer. Cortisol also suppresses the immune system.
What are the four ways of studying the brain?
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging - the use of a magnetic field to track the flow of oxygenated blood. An area with a lot of oxygenated blood shows an area is active. Maps can be produced to show active areas of the brain. The participant has to lie in a large magnetic field and lie still.
Electroencephalogram (EEG) - small electrodes are placed on the scalp which detect electrical impulses, triggered by nerve cell activity. The wave shapes produced from this shows the frequency as well as the strength of brain activity. EEG is used commonly for sleep research or measuring and diagnosing brain disorders (particularly epilepsy and Alzheimer’s).
Event-related potentials (ERPs) - these are types of brainwave that are triggered by particular events. Electrical activity can be pinpointed which shows neuronal activity is active in an area. ERPs aim to focus on particular activity by presenting participants stimulus over and over again, any activity which doesn’t occur consistently is discarded.
Post-mortem examinations - physical examination of the brain. This is usually used when patients exhibit extraordinary behaviour. Areas of the brain are examined to establish the likely cause of a deficit or disorder that the person suffered in life. The extent of the difference could then be assessed by use of comparing with a neurotypical brain. Researchers are able to get a clear idea of the cause of abnormality. Eg Broca carried out a post mortem of Tan who had speech problems. Broca was able to identify the ‘Broca’s area’ of the brain which produces speech.
Which cortex is responsible for initiating conscious movement in the body?
The Primary Motor cortex - this is located towards the surface of the brain, in the frontal lobe. Each section is responsible for a different part of the body and are placed in logical locations. Each half of the brain controls the opposite side of the body. The cortex can change shape due to training or practice.
Which cortex is responsible for receiving sensory information?
Somatosensory cortex - this is located close to the motor cortex in the parietal lobe. Each section is mapped to a specific area of the body.
In which lobe is visual information encoded?
The occipital lobe - projections from the retina are received via the thalamus. Information is then passed to temporal and parietal lobes and processed consciously.
Which area is responsible for hearing?
Auditory cortex - located within the temporal lobes. The stimulus converts to nerve impulses in the cochlea. It then reaches the brain stem where decoding takes place before reaching the thalamus, which processes the stimulus further. It then travels via the auditory nerve to the auditory cortex in the brain.