Studying Society Flashcards

1
Q

Define: Sociological

approach

A

A way of understanding human society that focuses on social structures

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2
Q

Define: Psychological approach

A

A way of understanding human behaviour by looking at individual make-up (brain, thinking
patterns, personality etc.)

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3
Q

Define: Biological approach

A

A way of understanding humans by looking at their biological make-up (genes,
chromosomes, hormones etc.)

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4
Q

Agents/agencies of socialisation

A

Institutions in society which establish/reinforce norms and values in people. An example is the family; they socialise their children to behave normally and teach them acceptable behaviour like manners.

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5
Q

Beliefs

A

ideas and attitudes that people have in society.

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6
Q

Conformity

A

to conform means to behave and think like the mainstream culture around you, to abide by the law and accept society’s goals and attitudes, and not strive to stand out.

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7
Q

Conflict/consensus

A

A conflict theory is one that says that society consists of groups which are all fighting for money and resources, and society functions through exploitation. Marxism and Feminism are both conflict theories. A consensus theory is very different to a conflict theory and says that society functions through independence and shared goals between groups/individuals in society. Functionalism is a consensus theory.

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8
Q

Culture

A

Shared patterns of behaviour, beliefs and attitudes within groups in society.

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9
Q

Cultural difference

A

The differences between cultures (in terms of norms, values, beliefs, opinions, behaviour etc)

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10
Q

Customs

A

Established habits, modes of behaviour, traditions, often within groups in society.

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11
Q

Discrimination

A

Treating people differently or denying them opportunities because or prejudice you have towards the group they belong to.

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12
Q

Ethnic group/ethnicity

A

Culture or nationality to which an individual belongs.

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13
Q

Feminism

A

The feminist theory says that many systems in society are patriarchal and looks at aspects of society through the perspective that women and oppressed or denied opportunities in those situations.

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14
Q

Functionalism

A

Functionalism believes that society functions because of each part of society playing its part well with a shared goal, and it believes that if one part of society is dysfunctional, the whole of society will be affected.

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15
Q

Gender/Sex

A

The biological approach says that your sex (genetics) controls certain aspects of your characteristics can be attributed to the sex a person is and how a person acquires these traits through gender socialisation.

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16
Q

Identity

A

The way a person sees themselves both as an individual and part of society. Many things can contribute to this, including age, social class, ethnicity, nationality etc.

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17
Q

Marxism

A

a conflict theory that says that society works through exploitation in capitalist societies of the lower classes, and society exists of groups fighting for money and resources. It looks through aspects of society through the perspective of class inequality.

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18
Q

Multicultural society

A

A society where many cultures and backgrounds exist within it.

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19
Q

Nature and Nurture

A

Nature is the biological idea that the person you become depends on your genetics, whereas nurture is the sociological idea that the way you are is based on different factors such as your socialisation, the family and class you are brought up in, your ethnic background, your education etc.

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20
Q

Norms

A

Ideas, attitudes and behaviour patterns that are ‘normal’ and expected of people in society.

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21
Q

Role models

A

Individuals who are portrayed as being a perfect example, for ‘normal’ people in society to aspire to, and copy from.

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22
Q

Peer group

A

People who are in a similar social situation to you, who you mix with a lot. This can be your classmates, colleagues, friends etc.

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23
Q

Prejudice

A

An impression or judgement you have about a group in society which can affect your feelings and attitudes towards individuals within that group.

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24
Q

Race

A

People who are associated with each other because they have the same nationality, ethnicity or colour

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25
Q

Racism

A

Discrimination or poor treatment of people because of their religion, nationality, ethnicity or colour.

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26
Q

Sanctions

A

Punishment or reward as a result of certain behaviour.

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27
Q

Formal Social Control

A

Formal: Social control refers to enforcing the idea of normal and acceptable behaviour in society. Agents of formal social control include the police and government, and their purpose is to control and stop criminal behaviour.

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28
Q

Informal Social Control

A

Agents of informal social control include peer groups and the media, and they encourage normal behaviour by subtly conveying the idea of what is acceptable and what is abnormal.

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29
Q

Social deprivation and the underclass

A

Social deprivation is the combination of many factors which leads to an individual to be socially excluded. Examples of these factors are poor housing, poverty, inadequate upbringing and mental illness. The underclass is a term used for those who are so highly deprived that they do not fit into the working class; they are a class in their own right.

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30
Q

Social issues

A

General issues or problems that relate to society. This can include poverty, unemployment, alcholism, racism etc.

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31
Q

Social Mobility

A

The idea of an individual being able to move to a higher/lower social class than they started out with in life. For example, a working class man going to university and qualifying as a doctor, which places him in the middle class.

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32
Q

Social Policies

A

Active responses by public institutions like the government to social problems, for example, setting up nationwide work schemes to tackle unemployment.

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33
Q

Social processes

A

The means by which something is achieved by society as a whole.

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34
Q

Social structure

A

The organisations and systems which make up society. The class system, as an example, is a social structure.

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35
Q

Socialisation

A

Socialisation is the informal process in which a person learns the norms and values expected in society, and acceptable ways of behaving.

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36
Q

Primary socialisation

A

Primary socialisation is carried out within the family; where the norms and values are established very basically, e.g. learning it is good manners to say please and thank you, eat with your mouth shut.

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37
Q

Secondary socialisation

A

Secondary socialisation is carried out by your peer groups, your school and other institutions, in which norms and values are reinforced, and more complicated expectations are established, for example what is ‘cool’ and ‘uncool’.

38
Q

Ascribed status

A

Your status is your social position in life, often related to which class you are in. Your ascribed status is aspects of your position which you have no control over, such as you gender, age, race etc.

39
Q

Achieved status

A

Your achieved status is the position you gain through your own effort, such as working hard in your place of work and moving up through promotions.

40
Q

Stratification

A

The means by which society is split up into layers. Social stratification refers to how society is split up into classes; upper, middle and working.

41
Q

Subculture

A

A small group whose norms and values are seen to be below those of mainstream society. An example of a subculture was the hippie movement in the 1970s; because their values were all about peace, and they often behaved differently, e.g. some smoked illegal drugs.

42
Q

Stereotype

A

An exaggerated characteristic attributed to a group in society which is meant to reflect on all people within that group.

43
Q

Values

A

Principles and beliefs which are held to be very important to society, or groups within society.

44
Q

Welfare state

A

Formed in 1945 by William Beveridge. The welfare state was set up to make sure the most vulnerable in society were being provided for and looked after. The welfare state umbrellas the National health service, which provides free healthcare to all, the benefits system, which ensures no one doesn’t have enough to live on, and the state housing system, which makes sure everyone has adequate housing.

45
Q

Name 4 different types of sampling methods

A

Stratified, random, quota, systematic and snowball

46
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A

This involves picking people from
different groups within the
population (eg. different genders,
ethnicities, ages, social classes)

47
Q

Advantages of stratified sampling

A

The sample will be representative
and give the point of view of all
the different groups in the
population.

48
Q

Disadvantages of stratified sampling

A

It is more time-consuming to
select the sample than other
sampling methods.

49
Q

What is random sampling?

A

The sample is selected by picking
names out of a hat (or with a
computer) – like the National
Lottery balls.

50
Q

Advantages of random sampling

A
There is no researcher bias in
who is selected and everyone
stands an equal chance of being
selected. It is also quick and easy
to use.
51
Q

Disadvantages of random sampling

A
The sample might be all the same
sort of people (eg. too many
males), so it will not be
representative of the whole
population.
52
Q

What is quota sampling?

A

The researcher picks participants
until they have the number they
need (ie their ‘quota’).

53
Q

Advantages of quota sampling

A

It is a quick and easy way to
select the right sort of people for
the research.

54
Q

Disadvantages of quota sampling

A

The sample is likely to be biased
because the researcher is
choosing the participants.

55
Q

What is systematic sampling?

A

The researcher uses a system to
pick the participants (eg. every
10th name on the register).

56
Q

Advantages of systematic sampling

A

The participants will be a crosssection
of the population, so will
hopefully be representative.

57
Q

Disadvantages of systematic sampling

A

Only the people on the register

stand a chance of being selected.

58
Q

What is snowball sampling?

A

The researcher selects one
person, then asks them to put
them in touch with other people,
etc.

59
Q

Advantages of snowball sampling

A
Useful for researching hard to
contact groups (eg. gangs).
60
Q

Disadvantages of snowball sampling

A

Very time-consuming, so only
small samples are used and the
results are not generalisable

61
Q

What are the main ethical issues when researching?

A

Get informed consent (or parents’ consent for under 16s).
• Debrief participants after the research.
• Do not harm or distress the participants.
• Give participants the right to withdraw.
• Maintain confidentiality.
• Keep the research anonymous.
• Do not deceive the participants.

62
Q

Primary research

A

This is where the researchers collect the data themselves.It is the best way to obtain valid data, but it is time-consuming and not always necessary.

63
Q

Secondary research

A

This is where the researchers use data that has been collected by somebody else. Useful especially when looking at historical events, or if another researcher has already investigated the area we want to know about.

64
Q

Primary research advantages

A

The information is ‘firsthand’ so is more likely to

be accurate and the information is more likely to be relevant.

65
Q

Primary research disadvantages

A

Conducting research can be very time consuming

and expensive and it is difficult to collect a lot of information.

66
Q

Secondary research advantages

A

It is easy to collect a lot of data quickly and

cheaply and there are lots of sources of data available

67
Q

Secondary research disadvantages

A

The information is more likely to be biased and the researchers might have their own agenda.

68
Q

Give examples of primary research

A

Questionnaires, interviews, observations, experiments

69
Q

Give examples of secondary research

A

Statistics, media reports, letters/emails, research studies

70
Q

Advantages of postal/email questionnaires

A

they are quick to distribute, so it is possible to
send them to lots of people (representative and
reliable).

71
Q

Disadvantages of postal/email questionnaires

A

people might not send them back (only about

10% do usually – reduces reliability and people also might not understand the questions (less valid).

72
Q

What are formal (structured) interviews?

A

The researcher decides on questions beforehand
and asks the participant face-to-face in a spoken
interview.

73
Q

Advantages of formal (structured) interviews

A

• All participants are asked exactly the same
questions (reliable);
• The researcher can explain what questions
mean (valid);
• The participant can also explain their answers
further in a semi-structured interview (valid).

74
Q

Disadvantages of formal (structured) interviews

A

the respondent might be influenced by the
researcher and therefore doesn’t answer
honestly (researcher effects).

75
Q

What are informal (unstructured) interviews?

A

The researcher has an open discussion with the

participant with no set questions.

76
Q

Advantages of informal (unstructured) interviews

A

• Participants can talk about what is important to
them (valid);
• The researcher can ask the participant what their
answers mean (valid).

77
Q

Disadvantages of informal (unstructured) interviews

A

Every interview is different, so it is hard to
compare the results of all the interviews (less
reliable)

78
Q

What are official statistics?

A

These are statistics published by the government (or

government agencies, such as the police or NHS).

79
Q

Advantages of official statistics

A

The data is usually based on the whole

population (representative).

80
Q

Disadvantages of official statistics

A

• The way the data is collected can change (for
example: the definitions of crime change all the
time – less reliable);
• The data may be politically biased (less valid).

81
Q

What are participant observations?

A

Where the researcher joins in with the activities of the participants (the people they are observing)

82
Q

Advantages of participant observations

A
  • The researcher can directly watch how participants behave (valid);
  • The researcher can see the world from participants’ point of view (valid)
83
Q

Disadvantages of participant observations

A

• If participants know they are being observed, then they will not act naturally (Hawthorne Effect – less
valid);
• The researcher might have to get involved in criminal behaviour (unethical);
• If participants do not know they are being observed, then they can not give their permission (consent –
unethical).

84
Q

What are non participant observations?

A

Where the researcher observes the participants at a distance (fly on the wall)

85
Q

Advantages of non participant observations

A

The researcher can directly watch how participants behave (valid).

86
Q

Disadvantages of non participant observations

A

• If participants know they are being observed, then they will not act naturally (Hawthorne Effect – less
valid);
• The researcher can not see the world from the participants’ point of view (less valid);
• If participants do not know they are being observed, then they can not give their permission (consent –
unethical).

87
Q

Overt observations

A

The participants know that they are being observed.

88
Q

Covert observations

A

The researcher goes undercover, so the participants do not know that they are being observed.

89
Q

What are longitudinal studies?

A

Longitudinal studies of a group of people over time. Changes over time, for example in people’s social attitudes and experiences, can be examined.

90
Q

Pilot Study

A

A pilot study is a preliminary small-scale study that researchers conduct in order to help them decide how best to conduct a large-scale research project.

91
Q

Quantitative data

A

Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of data that is quantifiable. For data to be quantifiable, the data must be able to be counted or mathematically calculated.

92
Q

Qualitative data

A

Qualitative data is information about qualities; information that can’t actually be measured.