5.1 - Approaches In Psychology Flashcards
(240 cards)
1
Q
What is psychology?
A
The scientific study of the human mind and its function, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context
2
Q
What is science?
A
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws
3
Q
Define introspection
A
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
4
Q
Who was Wundt and what did he do?
A
• he is known as the father of psychology
• opened the first institute for experimental psychology in Germany in 1879
• separated psychology from philosophy and focused on studying the mind
• took a reductionist approach
• simplified everything down to cause and effect
5
Q
What was Wundts objective?
A
To document and describe the nature of human consciousness
6
Q
Outline introspection and problems with it
A
• is a psychological method to analyse someone’s thoughts and feelings internally
• this was done as there were no brain scans and computers at the time
• they used this technique of presenting a stimuli and asking how they felt after seeing it
• does not explain how the mind works it simply relies on peoples subjective thoughts
• doesn’t provide data that can be used with certain reliability
7
Q
What are the 5 factors that need to be considered when deciding whether psychology is a science?
A
- objectivity
- control
- predictability
- hypothesis testing
- replication
8
Q
What was psychology originally considered to be in the 17th-19th century?
A
A branch of philosophy - called ‘experimental’ philosophy
9
Q
What approach did Sigmund Freud establish in the 1900s?
What therapy did he develop for depression?
A
-The psychodynamic approach- emphasising the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour - also focused on the importance of early childhood experiences on shaping our personality as adults
- he also developed his on therapy for depression called psychoanalysis
10
Q
What approach did J.B Watson establish In 1913?
A
-The behaviourist approach- believing all behaviour is learnt and that psychology should focus on studying outwardly observable behaviours rather than internal processes
- they criticised Freud and Wundt
- also influenced by B.Skinner , Pavlov and Rayner
11
Q
What approach did C. Rodger’s and A.Maslow develop in the 1950s?
A
-The humanistic approach - highlighting free will and self- determination
- highlighting the impact of the individual themselves
12
Q
What approach was established in the 1960s with the help of computers?
A
The cognitive approach - the belief that the human brain processes information in a way explainable by science
- the computer is used as a metaphor for the human mind
13
Q
What theory did Bandura propose In the 1960s?
A
The social learning theory - recognises ideas of behaviourism but also highlights the need to focus on the influence of cognitive processes and learning from others behaviour
- crucially bridges the behaviourist approach with the cognitive approach
14
Q
What approach did the development f technology give rise to in the 1980s?
A
The biological approach - our understanding of the functioning of the brain increases
Eg. MRI scans
15
Q
What area of science develops from the 2000s onward?
A
Cognitive neuroscience
This brings together the cognitive and the biological approach
16
Q
What was the focus of Wundts lab I’m Germany?
A
Wundts lab focused on understanding the psychological processes of perception and consciousness under controlled scientific conditions
17
Q
What was different about Wundts lab compared with to previous psychological studies?
A
Wundts lab conducted experiments under SCIENTIFIC conditions - moving away from the experimental philosophy - psychology emerged as its own science
18
Q
What was Wundts method for carrying out introspection?
A
Structuralism - using basic methods to find the basic structures or thought
19
Q
How did Wundts lab carry out structuralism ? What did Wundt find ?
A
A stimulus ( eg. Metronome ) would be given and highly trained assistants would record their thoughts and feelings
The longer it took for someone to respond = more mental processes there were going om
20
Q
What are the flaws of Wundts method?
A
1) relied on non- observable
2) Data produced is subjective and perhaps untruthful - social desirable answers
3) Sub - conscious thoughts can’t be recorded
21
Q
What do these flaws do to the validity of Wundts introspection method ?
A
The validity is reduced as the data from the participants might not be accurate
22
Q
How Does introspection benefit psychologists today?
A
Introspection allow psychologists of today to look for patterns of thinking attributed to a particular condition or problem
23
Q
What did Wundts introspection method lay the foundations for today?
A
Therapies such as CBT ( cognitive behavioural therapy ) - used for treating depression and addiction
24
Q
Outline introspection and the problems with it
A
Introspection is a psychological method to analyse someone’s thoughts and feelings internally - this was done as there were no brain scans or computers at the time so thus they used this technique of presenting a stimuli and asking how they felt after seeing it
- does not explain how the mind works
- relies on peoples subjective thoughts
- doesn’t provide data that can be used with certain reliability
25
What is reductionism ?
The idea that things can be reduced to simple cause and effect processes
26
What are the 5 features that make something a science?
1) objectivity
2) control
3) predictability
4) hypothesis testing
5) replication
27
What is meant by objectivity?
Scientific observations should be recorded without bias and not influences by any other factors or any other people
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What is meant by control?
Scientific observations should take place under controlled conditions
29
What is meant by predictability?
Scientists should be able to use the results and knowledge gained from experiments to predict future behaviour
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What is meant by hypothesis testing?
Theories generate predictions which can be tested to either strengthen the support for the theory, or else disprove it
31
What is meant by replication?
Each experiment should be able to be replicated exactly so people can have confidence in the results
32
What are the strengths of the scientific approach in psychology?
- due to its reliance on OBJECTIVITY and scientific methods knowledge acquired is more than just the passive acceptance of facts
- scientific methods believe in DETERMINISM they are able to establish the causes of behaviour through the use of methods that are replicable
- If Scientific methods no longer fit the facts then they can easily be refined or abandoned meaning that scientific knowledge is self corrective
- Allport (1947) said psychology has the same aims as science - to predict, understand and control
33
What are the limitations to a scientific approach in psychology ?
- by focusing on objectivity and control in experiments they tend to be too unrealistic and we lack an insight into natural behaviour
- a lot of psychological behaviour is unobservable and thus cannot be measured with much accuracy meaning that the gap between actual data and theories put forward is quite large
- not all psychologists believe that human behaviour can be viewed scientifically as it is not subject to laws and regularities that science implies
- unreliable methods - eg. Interview techniques which can be biased and interpreted differently by different researchers
- very hard to get representative sample of the population for a study - findings cannot be generalised
- psychological experiments are open to extraneous variables such as demand characteristics
34
What is behaviourism also known as?
Learning theory
35
The first worldwide accepted approach was behaviourism, outline this
- Behaviourism also known as learning theory started in the early 1900s by John Watson
- he believed that psychological research before this wasn’t scientific enough
36
What are the 3 assumptions behaviourism makes?
1) Nearly all behaviour is learnt
- only exceptions are a few inborn reflexes (eg. Blinking when we get dirt in our eyes ) + a few inborn instincts ( eg. Instinctively running when in some types of danger )
2) animals and humans learn in the same ways
- principal we learn are the same - based on the idea that we can form stimulus - response associations between stimuli and our actions
3) the mind is ‘irrelevant’
- can’t directly observe and measure a persons thinking
- can only obtain measurable data by studying behaviour
- cognitive abilities cannot be directly , scientifically measured
37
What 2 types of conditioning did behaviourists propose?
1) classical conditioning
2) operant conditioning
38
Outline pavlov’s classical conditioning
- was studying salivation however during his studies he found that dogs would end up salivating before there was any food
- direction of his studies changed and outlined classical conditioning
- when Pavlov gave his dogs food = also ring a bell
- after repeating this procedure several times - Pavlov tried ringing the bell without giving the dogs any food
- the bell alone caused salivation
- when dogs see food = they salivate - an automatic unlearned response - a reflex
- the food is an unconditioned stimulus ( UCS ) and salivation is an Unconditioned response ( UCR )
- bell had become a conditioned stimulus ( CS) - salivation has became a conditioned response ( CR )
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What happens before conditioning?
A certain stimulus eg. Food —> Triggers a natural reflex eg. Salivation
( unconditioned stimulus) ( unconditioned response )
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What happens during conditioning?
UCS repeatedly presented with —> salivation ( UCR )
another stimulus eg. A bell
( neutral stimulus)
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What happens after conditioning?
Overtime the bell presented by itself —> salivation ( conditioned response )
( Conditioned stimulus )
42
What are the examples of this process being applied to human development ?
- comfort for the baby is an UCS that produces happiness the UCR
- the babies mother will talk to it while she feeds it and changes it’s nappies etc. and thus the baby hears its mothers voice every time it is made happy
- sound of the mothers voice is matched with the UCS and thus becomes a CS
- eventually the sound of the mothers voice alone will make the baby happy
- the CS now causes the CR
43
Outline the several principles of classical conditioning
generalisation - when stimuli similar to the original CS ( eg. A bell with a different pitch ) produce the CR (eg. Salivating )
Discrimination- when stimuli similar to the original CS don’t produce CR - can be achieved by withholding the UCS (eg.food) when the similar stimulus is used
Extinction - when the CR (eg. Salivating) isn’t produced as a result of the CS (eg. A bell )
- this happens when the CS is presenter again after a period of time during which it’s not been used
Spontaneous recovery - when a previously extinct CR is produced in response to the CS - this happens when the CS is presented again after a period of time during which its not been used
Higher order conditioning - when a new CS (eg. A light ) produces the CR because the animal associates it with the original CS
- achieved by consistently presenting the new CS before the original CS
44
What are standardised instructions ?
The instructions given to each participant are kept identical - to prevent experiment bias
45
Define genotype
An organisms genetic makeup or allele combinations
46
Define phenotype
The set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment
47
What did skinner state in regards to operant conditioning ?
Assumes that behaviour is based on learning through consequence
48
Define positive reinforcement
Behaving in a way that gets rewarded - when something desirable is obtained in response to doing something eg. Giving a chocolate bar to a well behaved child to encourage future good behaviour
49
Define negative reinforcement
When something undesirable is removed when something happens
Eg. Being told by the teacher that you’ll have no extra homework if you pass your test
50
Define punishment
Behaviour is less likely to occur because of negative consequences
51
Define unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that unconditionally , naturally and automatically triggers a response
52
Define unconditioned response
The unlearned naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus such as salivation when food is in the mouth
53
Define neutral stimulus
A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
54
Define conditioned stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place
55
Define conditioned response
A reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus
56
Explain skinners (1938) rats showing operant conditioning experiment
- skinner created a Skinner box in which he placed one rat at a time
- Each skinner bod contained a variety of different stimuli eg. A speaker , lights , a floor which gave an electric shock and a food dispenser which released food when a lever was pressed
- a hungry rat was placed in the Skinner box
- the time taken for the rats to learn that pressing the lever would release food was recorded
57
What was the aim of skinners experiment ?
To demonstrate the principle of learning via operant conditioning
58
What were the results of skinners experiment ?
- initially the rat would run around the cage until it accidentally pressed the lever and it was rewarded with food
- the more the rat was put back into the box the quicker they got a learning where the lever was
59
What was the conclusion of skinners experiment ?
- Rats can learn behaviour through operant conditioning
- a behaviour such as pressing a lever can be positively reinforced by receiving food
60
Evaluate skinners experiment
- experiment used animals - ethical issues
- used animals so results may not be generalised to humans
- his sample size was small - reducing the reliability of his results
- hugely influential in promoting the idea of behavioural psychology
61
What are some weaknesses of conditioning ?
- experiments involved animals - cannot be generalised to humans
- different species have different capacities for learning by conditioning
- some may learn by simple observation - no reinforcement involved
- genetics influence and limit what different species can learn by conditioning
- unethical to use animals
62
What did skinner discover in his variation of negative reinforcement ?
- repeated the study but instead of giving food he made a loud noise which could be stopped by pressing the button
- he found that the button was pressed more often
63
What occurred in the punishment variation of skinners experiment ?
- He gave a shock very time he pressed the button
- this reduced the button pressing
64
Define habituation
An organisms decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
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What is higher order conditioning ?
- procedure In which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus
- creating a second conditioned stimulus
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What is operant behaviour ?
Behaviour that operates on the environment producing consequences
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What is Thorndikes law of effect ?
The principle that behaviours followed by favourable consequences become more likely and that behaviours followed by unfavourable consequences become less likely
68
Define intrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behaviour effectively for its own sake , excessive rewards undermine this
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Define extrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behaviour to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
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What is the main idea of the behaviourist approach ?
- They record behaviour that can be observed and measured
- they rely on lab experiments
- reject introspection as it’s too vague
71
According to Pavlov what is classical conditioning ?
Learning through association
72
What is operant conditioning ?
Learning through consequences
73
Define reinforcement
A consequence of behaviour that increase the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated
Can be positive or negative
74
Define social learning theory
A way of explaining behaviour that includes direct and indirect reinforcement as well as other factors combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
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What did Albert Bandura say about how people learn ?
People learn through imitation and observation of others within a social context
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Define vicarious reinforcement
Observing someone less being reinforced for a behaviour directly or indirectly
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Give an example of vicarious reinforcement
Banduras research :
- the children saw the adults being praised for hitting the BOBO doll and this led to more imitation
- this supper how children learn through vicarious reinforcement
- they see someone else being rewarded sp they copy the action In hope of being rewarded themselves
78
Define meditational processes
Cognitive factors that Influence learning and come between stimulus and response
79
What are the 4 meditational processes ?
1. Attention - noticing behaviour
2. Retention - remembering behaviour
3. Motor reproduction - preforming
4. Motivation - will to preform
Attention and retention = learning
Motor reproduction and motivation = performance
80
Define identification
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model
81
What is modelling in SLT ?
The person becomes a role model when they have similar characteristics to the observer and who are attractive or have a high status
82
What was Bandurs procedure to investigate social learning theory
( BOBO DOLL )
- recorded the behaviour of children who watched a video of an adult act aggressively towards a BOBO doll
- the children were then left to play with various toys among them a BOBO doll
- the children then started acting aggressively towards the BOBO doll
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What type of theory is social learning theory ?
Reductionist - explains things through very basic cause and effect mechanisms
For eg. Explains all behaviours as a result of learning from others and ignores any biological explanations
84
What were the variations of Banduras BOBO doll study ?
Group 1 - children saw the adult being praised for aggressive behaviour ( vicarious reinforcement )
Group 2 - children saw the adult punished for their behaviour
Group 3 - children saw aggression with no consequence
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What is the conclusion of Banduras experiment ?
Aggressive behaviour is learned through imitation of others behaving aggressively
86
How many children took kart in the experiment ?
36 boys and 36 girls
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What is meant by ‘ the study had matched participants design ‘
Children were matched on ratings of aggressively behaviour shown at their nursery school
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What 3 conditions took place in Banduras experiment ?
First condition - children observed aggressive adult models playing with the Bobo doll eg. Hitting it with a mallet
Second condition - children observed non aggressive models playing with toys and ignoring the Bobo doll
Third condition - control condition in which children didn’t have any exposure to the models
The children’s behaviour was then observed for 20 minutes in a room containing aggressive toys and non aggressive toys
89
Evaluate Banduras experiment
- provides evidence for social learning theory
- strict control of variables = results are likely to be reliable and the study can be replicated
- low ecological validity as the participants weren’t in a natural situation
- difficult to generalise the results because a limited sample was studied
- the children were all from the same school
- ethical problem - study promoted aggression in children
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What are some extra evaluation points ?
- Banduras study shows that reinforcement is not needed for learning - we can learn by just observing
- Bobo dolls are designed for aggressive play - you’re supposed to hit them
- the children were shown how to play with the doll so this study might actually be a test of obedience rather than observational learning
- behaviourism and SLT emphasises learning as the cuss of behaviour and so are on the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate = this has implications for society - eg. Children may imitate aggression from media role models
- potential genetic influences are not taken into account
- can be difficult to conclude that observational learning has taken place
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What does cognitive psychology look at ?
How we interpret the world
- at the internal workings of the mind and the explains behaviour through cognitive processes
- how we think
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What 4 things do cognitive psychologists look at to try and explain our behaviour ?
- perception
- language
- attention
- memory
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What is the cognitive approach ?
The cognitive approach is in direct contract to the behaviourist approach, in that it argues that internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically
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What are the 4 assumptions of the cognitive approach ?
- internal mental processes should be studied to understand behaviour
- the way that humans process information can be studied scientifically
- theoretical models are a useful way of explaining mental processes
- mental processes can’t be observed so psychologists have to make logical conclusions
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What are the two theoretical models which represent the internal mental processes ?
- the information processing model
- the computer model
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What are the three main research methods cognitive psychologists use ?
1. Laboratory experiments
2. Field experiments
3. Natural experiments
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What are laboratory experiments ?
Majority of the research occurs in laboratories
- very scientific and reliable as it is possible to have great control over variables in a lab
- this type of research doesn’t tell us much about the real world - low ecological validity
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Define ecological validity
The measure of how much the result of an experiment reflects what would happen in natural settings
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What are field experiments ?
- take place in a natural situation ( eg. Studies or memory or attention In a school environment )
- they have more ecological validity but there’s less control of most variables
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What happens in natural experiments ?
- Involve making observations of a naturally occurring situation
- the experimenter has little control of variables and participants can’t be randomly assigned to conditions
- natural experiments have high ecological validity but they’re not massively reliable as uncontrolled variables can affect the results
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What are the principles of the cognitive approach ?
- our mental systems have a limited capacity = the amount of information that can be processed will be influenced by how demanding the task is and how much other information is being processed
- a control Mechanism oversees all mental processes- this will require more processing power for new tasks , leaving less available for everything else
- there is a two way flow of information - we take in information from the world —> process it —> react to it
102
Describe the computer model ?
- the brain is described as a processor ( the thing that makes things happen )
- it has a data input into it and a output from it
- some parts of the brain form networks —> interconnected parts
- some parts can work sequentially ( info travels along just one path ) = this means one process must finish before another starts —> occurs in more demanding or unknown tasks
- they can work parallel too and along lots of paths at the same time —> more likely to occur in task which are familiar
103
Show in terms of flow diagrams how a computer system and human system work the same ?
Computer system :
Information coming In via a keyboard —> computer processor —> information output to a monitor
Human system :
Information coming in from the world through sense organs —> brain —> information passed back out for action
Data input —> data processing —> data output
104
Give an example of the computer model
In the working memory model there are temporary workspaces that have limited capacity so need to be cleared after use —> fits well with the RAM Capacity on a computer
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What are the differences between the two models ?
- computer model focuses more on the actual processes of reaching the behavioural output without specifying when/how much information is dealt with
- information processing is about the order of processing in a sequence
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What is a schema ?
- cognitive frameworks that help organise and interpret information in the brain
- provide a short cut to interpret a situation and alter our behaviour accordingly
107
Give an example of a schema ?
- A baby is born with motor schemas such as grasping and sucking
- in adults schemas become detailed mental representations for any and everything
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What happens when information is consistent with a schema ?
- it is assimilated into the schema
- eg. A child’s schema for an apple may be an edible green hard sphere
- every time the child sees a green apple the experience is assimilated and the schema is strengthened
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What happens when information is inconsistent with a schema ?
- accommodation occurs and the schema has to change in order to resolve the problem
- so if a child sees a red apple their apple schem has to accommodate this new information
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Define role schemas
These are ideas about the behaviour which is expected from someone in a certain role , setting or situation eg. Your schema die a doctor might be someone who is intelligent, respectable , sensible etc
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Define event schemas
- These are also called scripts
- they contain information about what happens in a situation
- eg. When you to to a restaurant you know you’ll usually need to read a menu and place an order
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Define self schemas
These contain information about ourselves based on physical characteristics and personality as well as beliefs and values
- self schemas can affect how you act eg. If your self- schema says that you are health conscious = you are likely to eat well and exercise regularly
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What is a Disadvantage of a schema ?
- can stop people from learning new information
- for eg. Prejudice and stereotypes can be a outcome of schemas
- a schema which holds expectations or beliefs about a certain subgroup of people may bias the way we process incoming information = we may be more likely to pay attention to information we can easily assimilate and ignore information that would involve changing our schemas to accommodate
- propagate stereotypical thinking and can also distort perceptual processing
114
What study was used to look at schemas ?
Bartlett (1932) - the war or the ghosts
115
Explain Bartlett’s schema study
- English participants were asked to read a Native American folk tale called War of ghosts
- it was an unfamiliar story full of strange and unusual names , ideas and objects
- also had a different structure to your average English story
- the participants were asked to recall the story after different lengths of time
116
What were the results of Barletts study ?
- all of the participants changed the story to fit their own schemas
- the details in the story became more English the story started to contain elements of English culture and details and emotions were adde
- as the length of time between hearing and recalling the story increased = the amount of information remembered became a lot less
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What was the conclusion of the experiment ?
People us their own schemas to help interpret and remember the world around them
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What was the evaluation of the experiment ?
- Study was conducted in a laboratory
- lacks ecological validity
- it was highly influential at the time as it paved the way for further cognitive research
119
What is cognitive neuroscience ?
The scientific study of the influence of brain structure on mental processes
- maps human behaviour to brain function
120
Give two methods of studying cognitive neuroscience
- FMRI - functional magnetic resonance imaging
- PET - positron emission technology
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What year did neuroscience emerge ?
1970s
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What are 3 methods of cognitive neuroscience ?
- lesion studies - looking at people with brain damage to see how behaviour is affected
- electrophysiology. - using electric and magnetic fields to measure brain activity and brain waves
- neuroimaging - pinpointing areas of the brain which are active when a task is performed
For eg. PET scams have been used to show the brain areas that are most active during memory tasks
123
What is an inference ( internal mental processes ) ?
An assumption about the cause of a behaviour that goes beyond the immediate evidence
124
What are some strengths of the cognitive approach ?
- considers mental processes which are often overlooked in the other approaches
- has had a big influence on the development of therapies eg. Cognitive behaviour therapy
125
What are some weaknesses of the cognitive approach ?
- research is often carried out in artificial situations ( laboratories, using computer models ) and the role of emotion and influence from other people is often ignored
- some can argue that the results aren’t valid in the real world
- cognitive psychology fails to take individual differences into account by assuming that all of us process stuff in exactly the same way
126
What is the limitation of the cognitive approach's use of lab based methods?
- lack ecological validity eg. Research with led to the MSM
- although memory works in the way suggested in lab studies - it doesn’t in everyday studies eg. The MSM put emphasis on simple rehearsal which is what ppts use in lab studies
- in everyday life we don’t constantly rehearse information but we still remember it - so rehearsal can’t be as important as the lab studies suggest
127
What is the strength of the cognitive approach relating to cognitive neuroscience?
- allowed researchers to record Brain activity and draw conclusions about the areas of the brain that are active during specific tasks
- which are presumably will be the same in everyday life as in lab studies
128
What is a limitation of the cognitive approach relating to computers differences to humans ?
- reducing the mind to the operations of a computer is a machine reductionism
- it ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation which may influence our ability to process information eg. Research has found that memory can be affected by emotion
- this reduces the validity and therefore the usefulness of the computer metaphor
129
Define the biological approach
The influence of genes, biological structures and neurochemistry on behaviour.
Genotype and phenotype , genetic basis of behaviour, evolution and behaviour
130
What are genes ?
- They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism ( eg. Eye colour, height ) and psychological features such as mental disorders and intelligence
- genes are transmitted from parents to offspring
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What are biological structures ?
An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing
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What is neurochemistry ?
Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
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What are genotypes ?
The particular set of genes that a person possess
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What is a phenotype ?
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment
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What are some assumptions of the biological approach ?
- everything psychological has a biological basis
- our biology is determined by evolution & genetics
- to investigate the mind we must investigate the physical brain
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What does the biological approach state?
Everything is at first biological to study human behaviour we must first observe biological structures
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What is meant by physical basis in the biological approach ?
- the mind lives in the brain meaning all thoughts , feelings and behaviour has a physical basis
- this is different to the cognitive approach that sees the brain as separate to the brain
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What do behaviour geneticists study?
- whether behavioural characteristics ( intelligence and personality ) is inherited the same way as physical characteristics
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Who carried out twin studies in 1991 ?
Gottesman - a meta analysis of twin studies
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What are twin studies used to determine?
The likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the concordance rates between pairs of twins
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How many twin studies did gottesman carry out?
40
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What were the results of the experiment?
- having an identical twin ( monozygotic ) with schizophrenia gave you = 48% change of developing the condition
- thus reduced to 17% in non-identical ( dizygotic ) twins
- identical twins are found to have higher concordance rates than non identical twins for eg. Musical ability , schizophrenia , love of romantic films etc
- this is because MZ twins share 100% of each others genes
- DZ twins share about 50%
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What are some evaluation points for Gottesman study ?
- the meta analysis was carried out on field studies = high ecological validity
- as identical twins share 100% of their genes = expected that both twins always would suffer from the same conditions
- the fact that both twins had developed schizophrenia in only about half of the cases means that another factor must also be involved
- identical twins tend to be treated more similarity than non- identical twins
- thus family environment might play a large role
144
Explain the adoption study of Heston 1996 of schizophrenia
- 47 adopted children whose biological mothers had schizophrenia were studied
- control group consisted of 50 adopted children whose biological mothers didn’t suffer from schizophrenia
- children were followed us as adults and were interviewed and given intelligence and personality tests
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What were the results of Heston's study?
- of the experimental group 5/47 became schizophrenic compared to 0 in the control group
- another 4 of the experimental group were classified as borderline schizophrenic by the rates
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What was the conclusion of Heston’s study?
The study supports the view that schizophrenia has a genetic basis
147
What are some evaluation points of Heston’s study ?
- interview data can be unreliable and affected by social desirability basis
- Nonetheless interviews are good ways of getting data in a naturalistic way
- the adopted children whose mothers didn’t suffer from any conditions might have not shown any symptoms of schizophrenia YET - can’t be completely ruled out
148
What are monozygotic twins ?
Identical and share 100% similarity of their genetic material
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What are dizygotic twins?
Non-identical & share about 50% similarity of genetic material
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Explain Charles Darwin's natural selection theory?
- any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individuals survival and reproduction will continue in future generations
- they are called adaptive as they give the possessor certain advantages
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What are some strengths of the biological approach?
- supporting evidence of genetic explanation —> twin studies
- has real life applications increased understanding of the brain has led to the development of drugs that treat mental disorders
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What are some weaknesses of the biological approach ?
- considered reductionist , complex behaviour , thoughts and emotions are equally explained by low- level biological mechanisms eg. Biochemicals and nerve impulses
- biology alone has been unable to explain the phenomenon of consciousness
- an extreme biological approach does not account for the wide base of evidence that points to the influence of our environment eg. Culture and society
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What did psychologist rely on to scan brains before brain-scanning techniques were developed?
Case studies
154
Explain phineas gage study in 1848
- he had damage to part of his frontal lobe after an explosion at work = resulted in a iron bar going straight through his head
- after the accident he was less organised and more impulsive and experienced personality changes including increased aggression
- this lead to belief that this area of the brain is responsible for these behaviours
- but this is a case study of only one person = so isn’t representative of the population —> leads to problems with generalising the results
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What are brain scans?
Can help examine patterns of brain activity and anatomy
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What is a recessive gene?
Only shows if the individual has two copies of the recessive gene
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What is A dominant gene?
Always shows, even if the individual only has one copy of the gene
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What is evolution?i
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
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What are the 3 principles that natural selection depend on in order for animals to adapt to the environment they’re living in ?
- the principle of diversity - variety within a species
- the principle of interaction - how this variety of species adapt and fit in with the environment
- the principle of differential amplification - those who adapt to their environment will reproduce and those that do not will die out
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What are the 5 different brain scans?
1) PET scans
2) CAT scans
3) MRI scans
4) functional MRI scans
5) SQUID magnetometry
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What are PET scans?
- Shows which parts of the brain are active during different tasks
- allow us to see where the brain is most active when we are thinking about certain things
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What are CAT scans ?
- Detect damaged parts of the brain , tumours and blood clots
- brain structure is shown not function
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What are MRI scans ?
Detect small tumours and provide detailed information about structure
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What are functional MRI scans ?
Provide structural and functional information
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What is SQUID magnetometry ?
Produces accurate images of brain activity by measuring the magnetic fields generated when neurons are activated
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What did Maguire et al. (2000) study ?
A study of taxi drivers brain
- in a natural experiment MRI scans from 16 licensed male London taxi drivers were compared with a control group who had never driven trains
- all of the participants were in good general neurological and psychiatric health
- had an average age of 44
- all of the taxi drivers had at least 18 months of working
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What were the results of Maguire et Al. (2000) experiment ?
- the average size of the right posterior hippocampus was significantly larger in the taxi driver group compared to the control group
- the increased size was relative to the length of the time the taxi driver had been working
- longer they’d been working = larger their right posterior hippocampus
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What was the conclusion of maguire's study?
The hippocampus is responsible for storing a spatial representation of the environment - it seems that the specific navigational demands on the taxi drivers have resulted in physical change
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What are some evaluation points of maguirés study?
- findings of the study can be used to help those with brain injuries as it shows the size of structures within the brain and can be influenced through cognitive activity
- rehabilitation could be tailored to the specific needs of individual and their injuries
- study has a good level of control and could be replicated —> increases reliability
- sample size is small —> results can only be generalised to male taxi drivers in London
- results can’t be generalised to other areas of the brain
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What are the 3 areas in which the brain structure has been investigated ?
1. Aggression - Bard and Mountcastle (1948) found that lesioning ( I.E . Damaging ) areas of the brains of cats lead to changes in levels of aggression - their research suggests that the hypothalamus and amygdala are involved in aggression
2. Memory - in a case study Milner et al. (1957) found that HM was unable to use his long term memory effectively suggesting that the hippocampus has an important role here
3. Psychopathology - Szeszko et al. (1995) found differences in the prefrontal cortex when comparing people with and without schizophrenia suggesting a relationship between them
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Explain how neurochemistry might also influence behaviour
- too much or too little of a particular neurotransmitter may produce psychological disorders
Eg. An increased level of dopamine is linked to schizophrenia
- drugs like cocaine which increase dopamine levels can lead to schizophrenia like symptoms
- some biological psychologists investigate the impact of neurotransmitters have on behaviour
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Why are the limitations of the biological approach ?
- deterministic approach as it believes that we are determined by our psychological, genetic or evolutionary make up - thus stating there is no free will
- this approach is reductionist by stating that all human behaviour can be explained through biological processes and we are therefore not unique as individuals —> it is also dehumanising to present humans a biological machines
- biological approach ignores the role of the environment etc. it should be used in combination which is known as the biosocial approach
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What is the psychodynamic approach ?
A perspective that describes the different forces most of which are unconscious that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience
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Who is sigmund Freud ?
- A psychiatrist who is known to be the founder of the psychodynamic approach
- he developed the theory of psycho-analysis which helps patients who are suffering from traumatic experiences
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What are the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach ?
- that unconscious forces in our mind determine our thoughts, feelings and behaviour
- our behaviour as adults is strongly influenced by our childhood experiences
- abnormal Behaviour is the result of mental conflict
- the mind can be divided into three levels of consciousness - which can be illustrated not the iceberg analogy —> the unconscious mind which is hidden below the surface has the most influence on our personality
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What are the 3 levels of consciousness according to Freud ?
1. Conscious - this is what we are aware of at any given time
Eg. What we are seeing , hearing , smelling or thinking
2. Preconscious - made up of memories that we can recall when we want to eg. We can recall our address, phone number , childhood memories etc.
3. Unconscious - made up of memories , desires and fears which cause us extreme anxiety and have therefore been repressed or forced out of conscious awareness
- however the unconscious still influences behaviour
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What are the 3 parts of a person’s personality according to Freud ?
- the id
- the ego
- the superego
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What is the id ?
- primitive part of our personality
- operates on the pleasure principle ( gets what it wants )
- ID is a mass of unconscious drives and instincts
- only the ID is present at birth
- accounts for unreasonable behaviour
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What is the EGO ?
- develops at around the age of 2
- works on the reality principle and is the mediator between the ID and SUPEREGO
- makes the person aware of other peoples feelings and that it can’t always have its own way
- it’s role us to reduce the conflict between the demands of the ID and the SUPEREGO
- it manages this by employing a number of defence mechanisms
- exists in both the conscious and unconscious parts of the mid and acts as a RATIONAL part known as a reality principle
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What is the SUPEREGO ?
- formed around at the age of 5
- it is our internalised sense of right and wrong
- represents the moral standards of the child’s same sex parent
- punishes the ego for wrongdoing ( through guilt )
- both conscious and unconscious parts of the mind
- this is the part of the brain that takes our morals into consideration
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What happens if the ID, EGO and SUPEREGO do not work together ?
- ego is too weak - allows id and superego to dominate
- id is too strong - selfish , out of control , could become psychopathic
- Superego too strong - strict , anxious , obsessive, depression anxiety and OCD
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What is meant by defence mechanisms ?
Unconscious ways that we prevent ourselves from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas
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What is meant by repression ?
Unconsciously blocking unacceptable thoughts and impulses
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What is meant by denial ?
Refusing to except reality to avoid dealing with any painful feelings
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What is meant by displacement ?
Redirecting thoughts or feelings towards something else or someone else
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What is meant by rationalisation ?
Finding a reasonable excuse for a reaction or thought when to don’t really have one
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What is meant by regression ?
When a person behaves in a way that in the past may have brought relief
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What were the 5 psychosexual stages Freud proposed ?
- oral
- anal
- phallic
- latent
- genital
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What is meant by the term fixated ?
If a child does not receive enough pleasure or they receive too much during a stage of development they will become ‘ fixiated ‘ at the stage they are at
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What did Freud mean by the oral stage?
- the mouth being the main focus of pleasure from birth to 18 months
- the mothers breast is the object of desire
- you show you have completed this stage by eating independently
- if you don’t complete the stage —> shows in the future with habits like smoking , biting nails and sarcasm
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What did Freud mean by the anal stage?
- the anus is the main source of pleasure from 18 months to 3 years
- you show you have completed the stage by potty training
- if you do not complete this stage this shows in adult personality in two forms :
• one of which is anally retentive whether you are tidy and stubborn
• if you are an ally expulsive meaning you are generous but messy
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What did Freud mean by the phallic stage ?
- the genitals is the focus of pleasure from 3-5 years old
- this is how children develop the gender identity through the oedipus complex and the electra complex
- if you do not complete the stage then you end up showing personality traits such as - narcissism and recklessness , possibility homosexual
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What is the Oedipus complex ?
Boy wants his mother as his ‘primary love object & wants his father out of the way
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What is the Electra complex ?
Girls experience penis envy, they desire their father as the penis is the primary love object and hate their mother
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What did Freud mean by the latency stage ?
- the idea that from 5 to 12 years old
- earlier conflicts are repressed
- sexual urges sublimated into sports and other hobbies
- focus on developing same sex friendships
- no particular requirements for successful completion
- Lull before the storm of puberty
- this leads to children being unable to remember much of their early years
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What did Freud mean by the genital stage ?
- idea from 12 years and up —> puberty into adulthood
- focus on genitals but not to the same extent as phallic stage
- sexual desires become conscious with in us because we begin puberty
- he believed that unresolved conflicts lead to a difficulty forming relationships with the opposite sex
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Explain frauds little Hans study
- Freud carried out a case study on a child called Hans who had a phobia of horses
- Hans was observed by his farther who made notes of Hans dreams and stuff he said and passed them onto Freud for analysis
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What were the results of the little Hans study?
- Hans was afraid of horses because he thought they might bite him or fall on him
- during the study he developed an interest in his ‘widdler’ ( penis )
- his mum told him not to play with it or she’d cut it off
- Hans told his dad about a dream where he was married to his mum and his dad was now his grandfather
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What are the conclusions of little Hans study?
- Freuds interpretation was that Hans had reached the phallic stage of development and showed evidence of the OEDIPUS COMPLEX - he wanted to have an exclusive relationship with his mother and was jealous of his father
- Hans had sexual feelings for his mother , shown partly by his dream of marrying her
- the horse symbolised Hans father because to him they both had big penises
- his fear of horses is an example of displacement - A DEFENCE MECHANISM that protected him from his real fear of his father
- Hans suffered from castration anxiety
- he was afraid that he would be crastated by his father if he found out about his feelings for his mother
- this was symbolised by Hans fear that a horse would bite him
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What are some evaluation points of the Little Hans study ?
- Case study = provided lots of detailed data about one subject but the results cannot be generalised
- findings provided evidence to support Freuds theories
- the results were based entirely on observation and interpretation
- thus a cause and effect relationship cannot be established
- there could be other explanations —> Hans anxiety may have come from his mother threatening to cut his penis off
- before the study Hans had been frightened by a horse falling down in the street which could explain his fear for them
- Freud analysed information from Hans father so the results can be BIAS
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What is a Freudian slip ?
A Freudian slip also called paraphrases is an error in speech, memory or physical action that occurs due to the interference of an unconscious subdued wish or internal train of thought
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What are the strengths of the psychodynamic approach ?
- first theory to focus on psychological causes of disorders —> before this the focus had been on physical causes or things such as possession by evil spirits
- first approaches to suggest that mental earth disorders may be linked to unresolved conflicts related to biological needs
- offers methods of therapy such as psychoanalysis which may uncover unconscious conflicts —> patients can then understand the causes of their problems and so resolve them and release their anxieties
- Freuds theory places emphasis on how experiences in early childhood can affect later development —> formed the basis for lots of other important theories
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What are some weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach ?
- Freuds claims are based in his subjective interpretations of his patients dreams etc. —> they’re unreliable and open to bias
- Freuds theories are related to the unconscious mind which can’t be accessed —> his theories are unfalsifiable ( can’t be proved wrong )
- psychoanalysis may take a long time and be very expensive —> childhood conflicts that are uncovered may be emotionally distressing and possibly inaccurate depending on the reliability of the patients memory
- the focus is on the patients past rather than current problems
- approach is based on case studies of people in distress so the findings cannot be generalised to everyone else
- the unscientific research methods mean it’s not possible to establish cause and effect
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Explain the gender bias limitation in this study ?
- Gender bias - alpha bias
- Femininity was failed masculinity and that we can never believe that 2 sexes are equal in position or worth
- Hornsey broke away from the Freudian theory and criticised the approach
- Dismissing women and their sexuality in such a way is problematic because psychoanalysis is still influential today and many female patients are treated by it
- with such clear bias it is inappropriate for the approach to be applied to both sexes
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What is humanistic psychology ?
Focuses on the person as a whole
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What do humanistic psychologists believe ?
That all people are inherently good and that they’re driven to achieve their full potential
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What is different about the humanistic approach in comparison to the other approaches ?
It takes into account the feelings of the individual rather than just their observable behaviour —> treats every person as being unique
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What type of approach does humanistic psychology have ?
Idiographic rather than nomothetic —> focuses on studying the individual rather than producing general rules which come from summarising a group of people
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What are the basic assumptions of humanistic psychology ?
- every individual is unique
- free will
- people should be viewed holistically
- the scientific method is not appropriate to measure behaviour
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Where did humanistic psychology emerge from and who were the founders ?
- Emerged in the United States in the 1950s
- As a result or the work of Carl rogers and Abraham Maslow
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Explain what is meant by the basic assumption that every individual is unique
- Humanists believe that we are all different and we should be treated as such
- this approach is thus unlikely to try and generalise to groups of people and subdivide the population into clusters which all share a characteristic such as age or gender
- this way of viewing people as unique individuals is called IDOGRAPHIC
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Explain what is meant by the basic assumption of free will
- the humanist approach is based on the core assumption that we have free will , that we have the ability to choose what we do and we are in control or our behaviour
- Humanists are self determining - we are not affected by external or internal influences
- ultimately this means we are in charge of how we develop and progress through life
- acknowledges some constraints on free will ; social rules , law and morals
- an implication of the belief in free will is that this means that a person is responsible for their own behavior , social or anti-social
- in terms of the legal system this places the responsibility with the individual meaning it is their fault
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Explain what is meant by the basic assumption that states people should be viewed holistically
- Humanists argue that there is no point looking at just one aspect of an individual
- if only one part of them is considered then much of what could be affecting them might be missed
- Humanists do not believe in focusing on childhood durning therapy - they believe the whole life should be considered
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Explain what is meant by the basic assumption that states the scientific method is not appropriate to measure behaviour
- humanistic psychology does not describe itself as scientific —> argue the scientific method tries to be too objective and yet humans are subjective in the way they think and behave
- free will is a difficult fondest to determine although this does not bother humanists
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Who developed the hierarchy of needs ?
Maslow (1943)
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What is suggested by the hierarchy of needs ?
suggests that people are motivated to use their own free will to allow them to reach their fullest potential
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Explain the 5 layers of Maslow’s hierarchy of need
1. At this level you source the food,water , shelter and sleep you need to stay alive ( as well as sex to reproduce )
2. At this level you strive to feel safe physically, psychologically and economically
3. At this level you consider affection , acceptance and belonging to be most important
4. At this level you’re focused on achievement and gaining respect from others
5. At this level you realise your fullest potential - you’ve become the best you’re capable of being
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Explain what Maslow proposed by the hierarchy of needs
- Maslow was interested in explaining how people try to make themselves the best that they can be
- he believed that we spend our lives trying to reach the top of the hierarchy but that hardly anyone gets there
- he stated that until lower level needs are met you can’t attempt to satisfy higher level needs
- this is applicable in real life
- however humanistic psychology is quite WESTERNISED concept I.e. western culture encourages individual growth rather than prioritising the needs of the social group
- humanistic psychology assumes that everyone has the ability to self actualise - this can be incorrect as self actualisation may be limited to the most intelligent, we educated people
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What is self actualisation ?
- according to Maslow once people have achieved all their previous needs in the hierarchy they are ready for self actualisation
- highest order of human needs
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What are the characteristics of someone who has achieved self actualisation ?
- a strong sense of self- awareness
- a fully accepting view of themselves and others for who they are
- the ability to deal with uncertainty and the unknown
- a strong sense of creativity
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explain Arnoff (1967) - Job demands and the hierarchy of needs study ?
- Arnoff compares people in two jobs in the British wales indies - the fishermen and cane cutters
- Cane cutters got paid according to how much cane was cut by the whole group even when they were off sick —> they had high job security although wages were low
- the fisherman worked alone doing more challenging work —> less secure In their Jon although they earned more overall
- both groups of people were assessed to see which level they were at on Maslows hierarchy of needs
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What were the results of Aronoffs study ?
- More cane cutters were at the lower levels of the hierarchy —> still trying to achieve safety and security than fishermen
- many of whom had satisfied the lower levels of the hierarchy
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What was the conclusion of Arnoffs study ?
- Only those men who had satisfied lower levels of the pyramid would choose to become fishermen —> allowing the, to develop high self esteem
- suggests people cannot reach the higher levels of Maslows hierarchy until they have Satisfied the lower levels
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What are some evaluation points of Arnoffs study ?
- study supported Maslows hierarchy of needs theory
- has high ecological validity as it studied people in their natural environment
- it only studied people from one culture = so the results can’t be generalised to the wider population
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What did Rogers believe in ?
- believed that all people try to achieve self actualisation
- also claimed that all people are inherently good and that they’re motivated to achieve their fullest potential
- he believed that instead of working their way up the hierarchy of needs Roger believed that people move towards self actualisation depending on their own thoughts of themselves and the way they’re treated by others
- from this he believed that you’ll develop in a PSYCHOLOGICALLY HEALTHY WAY if your path to self actualisation is not blocked —> blockages can lead to psychological problems
- believed that everyone has a need to be regarded by others in a good light and to be shown Kobe affection and respect —> important for children who want to seek approval from their parents —> they’ll be more psychologically happy if they get this approval or unhappy if they feel that their parents are disappointed or displeased with them
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What two differences did Rogers outline ?
How someone sees themselves ( their self concept) and how they would like to be ( their ideal self )
227
What did Rogers suggest in regards to self concept ?
That a persons self concept is created and develops in a way which depends on whether they receive unconditional positive regard or whether conditions of worth are set for them
228
What is unconditional positive regard ?
- This is where the person gets affection and support no matter what their behaviour is like
- we need unconditional positive regard to have a POSITIVE SELF- CONCEPT
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What are conditions of worth ?
- where approval and affection is given as a result of behaving in a certain way
- although this treatment can help someone learn to fit in with the rules of social life —> that it can stop them reaching from self actualisation = may be because the person may focus on keeping other people happy rather than developing their own personality
- low self worth comes from lack of unconditional love from parents
- often set conditions for love “I’ll only love you if “ - suggesting the child has no value of its own
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What is client- cantered therapy ?
- Rogers believed that many people’s psychological problems were caused by incongruence
- there is a contradiction between someone’s self concept and their ideal self
- his therapy aimed to remove this incongruence by making it possible for the person to become their ideal self
- the patient is the expert of themselves
- the counsellor encourages self-help
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What were Rogers three conditions in client - cantered therapy ?
1. Empathetic understanding - the therapist should understand the reality of experience for the client as if it is their own
2. Unconditional positive regard - acceptance of the client for who they are —> no conditions of worth
3. A congruent therapist - genuity and authenticity
The therapist is supportive of the client no matter what they do or say with the aim that the client will come to value themselves
232
What 3 forms of ourselves did Rogers suggest we need to integrate to achieve self actualisation ?
1. Self concept
2. Ideal self
3. Real self
233
What is self concept ?
- the self they can be described as the self you feel you are
- similar to self esteem and is affected by it
- someone has low self esteem = their self concept will be poor and they will have a distorted view of how capable they are
234
What is the ideal self ?
- the self you wish to be
- who you are aiming towards becoming
- use common phrases such as “ I wish I was More..”
- differs from the self concept in that it is not who you think you are it is who you wish you were
235
What is the real self ?
- the person you actually are
- not who you think you are or who you wish you were
236
Explain Gibbard and Hanley (2008) study
- studied the impact of person-cantered therapy on a group of patients suffering from common mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression
- studied over 700 people over 5 years
- a questionnaire was used to measure the extent of their condition before and after therapy
- found that nearly 70% of the participants showed a significant improvement in their mental health after taking part in person centred therapy
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What is meant by a holistic approach ?
- humanistic psychology advocates for a holistic approach of considering the whole person to understand their subjective experience
- does not break behaviour down into simplest factors
= greater external validity due to the consideration of behaviour in a meaningful context
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How does culture bias play a part in humanistic psychology ?
- the concepts of self actualisation, autonomy, Individual freedom and personal growth are heavily linked to individualist cultures
- collectivist cultures emphasise the needs of the community and interdependence = cannot identify with humanistic psychology = imposed Etic - cannot be widely applied across cultures
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What are the strengths of humanistic psychology ?
- very positive approach - states people are striving to be better
- Free will is a major part of humanistic psychology = less restrictive than more deterministic approaches
- humanistic psychologists believe that a deterministic approach is no good for understanding the complex nature of human behaviour
- the approach treats people as individuals and takes the whole person into account rather than reducing individual behaviours to cause and effect responses
- research in this approach gathers qualitative data = rich in details
- Rogers recorded most of his therapy sessions so they could be analysed making it possible to observe the success as a result of the therapy
- the counselling techniques which have come from the approach have been shown to be effective
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What are some weaknesses of humanistic psychology ?
- this approach places less emphasis on factors such as genes etc. than the biological approach
- humanistic approach lacks objectivity - largely based on feelings and SUBJECTIVE reports = hard to test in a scientific way - features thing that are hard to measure such as self actualisation
- approach is IDOGRAPHIC which means it doesn’t create generalised laws which can be applied to everyone making it a less SCIENTIFIC approach
