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Personality & social > The self > Flashcards

The self Flashcards

1
Q

What is the traditional view of ‘the self’?

A

The self is a stable, genetically determined ‘character’/personality that evolves over our lifetime

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2
Q

What is the basis of Symbolic Interactionism?

A
  • we evolve in relation to the influence of others
  • the self is a socially-constructed entity (rather than an inherent property of human nature)
  • the self can’t be understood in isolation but in terms of our interaction with others
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3
Q

According to Symbolic Interactionism, how do we know that society influences us?

A

Society influences people because our self-concept/knowledge is continually modified through our interactions with others

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4
Q

According to Symbolic Interactionism, our sense of self is built upon…

A

…lifelong experience of seeing ourselves through the eyes of others

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5
Q

What is the ‘looking-glass self’?

A

Our self-concept is derived from seeing ourselves how others see us/how we think others see us

We tend to be biased by our own perceptions

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6
Q

According to Yeung et al. (2003), what are the 3 components of the ‘looking-glass self’?

A

Yeung et al. (2003)

  1. We imagine how we appear to others
  2. We imagine & react to what we feel their judgement of that appearance is
  3. We develop the self through the judgements of others
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7
Q

What is a criticism of the ‘looking-glass self’?

A

It is not always an accurate view – we are generally unaware of what others really think of us (Kenny & DePaulo, 1993)

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8
Q

Who proposed Self-Awareness theory?

A

Duval & Wicklund (1972)

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9
Q

What is ‘self-awareness’?

A

A psychological state in which we become aware of ourselves as objects

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10
Q

What is the basis of Self-Awareness theory?

A

Objective self-awareness is generated by circumstances that focus our attention on the self (e.g. in front of an audience/mirror)

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11
Q

Are we born with self-awareness or does it develop over time?

A

Self-awareness develops over time (we aren’t born with it)

At 18 months-old, we become aware that we are individual beings

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12
Q

A spot was put on an infant’s nose & they were put in front of a mirror.

Who did this study & how did the infants react?

A

Lewis & Brooks (1978)

9-12 months-old → treated the mirror image as another child; no recognition of the spot on their own nose (i.e. no self-awareness)

18 months-old → looked at their reflection & touched the spot on their own nose (i.e. had self-awareness)

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13
Q

What types of self are there?

A
  • private self

- public self

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14
Q

What is the ‘private self’?

A

We focus on our internal states (private thoughts, feelings, attitudes)

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15
Q

When do we become privately self-aware?

A

We become privately self-aware when we see our face in a mirror or experience physiological arousal → this reflects on our emotional state

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16
Q

What are the consequences of becoming privately self-aware?

A
  1. Intensified emotional responses
  2. Experience clarification of knowledge
  3. More likely to adhere to personal standards/ideals
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17
Q

Why do our emotional responses intensify when we become privately self-aware?

A

We focus on our internal states → intensifies the experience of those feelings

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18
Q

What did Scheier & Carver (1977) do to study how being privately self-aware influences your emotional responses?

A

Scheier & Carver (1977) – pps read positive OR negative statements aloud (elicited elation/ depression)

  • -> pps who looked in a mirror during the task (i.e. were privately self-aware) displayed more extreme emotions
  • when they read out words that elicited elation, they had greater happiness ratings than controls
  • when they read out words that elicited depression, they felt less degree of happiness than controls
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19
Q

Why do we experience clarification of knowledge when we become privately self-aware?

A

We focus on our internal states → report them with greater accuracy

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20
Q

Pps were given a placebo drug & were told that it would induce arousal & side-effects.

Who did this study & how did the results from pps who were privately self-aware differ from results of pps who weren’t privately self-aware?

A

Gibbons et al. (1979)

Pps with a mirror (i.e. privately self-aware) reported less arousal & fewer side-effects than pps with no mirror (i.e. not privately self-aware)

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21
Q

Why did the results between privately self-aware pps differ so much from pps who weren’t privately self-aware in Gibbons et al.’s (1979) study?

A

Pps who were privately self-aware based their self-knowledge on perceptions of the drug - they relied on what they had been told

Pps who were privately self-aware focused on their own experience (–> more accurate)

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22
Q

Why are pps more likely to adhere to personal standards/ideals when they are privately self-aware?

A

When we are more aware of our true beliefs, we act in line with those beliefs & are less vulnerable to social influence (e.g. conforming to group norms)

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23
Q

Pps had to write a counter-attitudinal essay.

Researchers found that pps who wrote their essay in front of a mirror showed less attitude change than those without a mirror.

Who did this study & what caused the results to differ like this?

A

Scheier & Carver (1980)

Pps with a mirror focused more on their true attitudes, regardless of their inconsistent behaviour

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24
Q

Who proposed Cognitive Dissonance theory?

A

Festinger (1957)

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25
Q

What is the basis of Cognitive Dissonance theory?

A

Festinger (1957)

People feel negative arousal if their attitudes & behaviour is inconsistent → this is often addressed by changing their attitudes to fit their behaviour

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26
Q

What is the ‘public self’?

A

How others see you (your public image) or how we THINK we are perceived by others

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27
Q

When do we become publicly self-aware?

A

We become publicly self-aware when aspects of ourselves can be seen & evaluated by others

  • can be chronic (e.g. social networking)
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28
Q

What are the consequences of public self-awareness

A
  1. Fear of negative evaluation can lead to nervousness & lower self-esteem
  2. Behaviour aimed at presenting oneself in a positive light (i.e. we change behaviour)
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29
Q

How might we change our behaviour to present ourselves in a more positive light?

A
  • adhere to social standards (e.g. conform to group norms)

- present an idealised version of ourselves

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30
Q

What is ‘self-esteem’?

A

Our evaluation of our self-worth

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31
Q

Crocker & Knight (2005) say that we tend to focus on self-evaluations in domains that…

A

…enhance our feelings of self-worth

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32
Q

Most people strive to feel so about themselves - how do they self-evaluate as a result?

A

Most people strive to feel good about themselves so they self-evaluate in a way that boosts their self-esteem

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33
Q

According to Baumring (1991), how does our self-esteem develop/what influences our self-esteem?

A

Baumring (1991) – the parenting style of our CG in childhood influences our self-esteem later in life

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34
Q

Baumring (1991) proposed 2 dimensions of influential parenting style. What are they?

A
  • demanding

- responsive

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35
Q

What are the characteristics of a ‘demanding’ caregiver?

A
  • controlling

- impose rules & punishments

36
Q

What are the characteristics of a ‘responsive’ caregiver?

A
  • warm

- supportive

37
Q

What are the 3 types of parenting style?

A
  • authoritative
  • authoritarian
  • permissive
38
Q

What are the characteristics of an Authoritative parent and what effect does this have on the child’s self-esteem?

A

High demanding + high responsive → high SE

39
Q

What are the characteristics of an Authoritarian parent and what effect does this have on the child’s self-esteem?

A

High demanding + low responsive → reduced SE

40
Q

What are the characteristics of an Permissive parent and what effect does this have on the child’s self-esteem?

A

Low demanding + high responsive → reduced SE

41
Q

Chronic self-esteem may be determined in childhood.

Which researcher found evidence of variations in low & high self-esteem throughout the lifespan?

A

Robins et al. (2002)

42
Q

What happens to our self-esteem when we are 6-11 y/o, according to Robins et al. (2002)?

A
  • our self-esteem is relatively unstable
  • we are still developing our self-concept
  • we are affected by others around us & any temporary changes in our life
43
Q

What happens to our self-esteem when we are in our 20s, according to Robins et al. (2002)?

A
  • this is time when our self-esteem is most stable
  • we have a fully developed self-concept
  • we are less affected by temporary life changes
44
Q

What happens to our self-esteem when we are in mid-adulthood, according to Robins et al. (2002)?

A
  • our self-esteem is still relatively stable
45
Q

What happens to our self-esteem when we are 60 y/o & older, according to Robins et al. (2002)?

A
  • our self-esteem declines in stability
  • we experience major life changes (e.g. retirement)
  • we are more affected by changes in the environment
46
Q

When we become self-aware, what does this increase our access to?

A

When we become self-aware, it allows us to access info about ourselves

47
Q

What is a ‘schema’?

A

A cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept/type of stimulus

48
Q

What is a ‘self-schema’?

A

How we expect ourselves to think, feel & behave in a situation (self-knowledge)

It consists of our perception of the self (“I’m shy) & our experience of this (“shy in seminars”)

49
Q

Which researcher/s claims that some self-schemas are more important than others?

A

Markus (1977) – some self-schemas are more important than others
- factors we feel contribute to our identity are most important

50
Q

If a dimension is important to our identity, we say that we are _______ on that dimension.

A

If a dimension is important to our identity, we say that we are SELF-SCHEMATIC on that dimension.

51
Q

If a dimension is NOT important to our identity, we say that we are _______ on that dimension.

A

If a dimension is NOT important to our identity, we say that we are ASCHEMATIC on that dimension.

52
Q

Self-schematic dimensions are likely to be activated in relevant situations.

Describe a study that investigated pps responses to self-schematic/aschematic traits.

A

Markus (1977) – pps rated themselves as self-schematic on the trait of independence OR dependence, OR aschematic on both
Pps were shown words that represented independence (“assertive”) OR dependence (“obliging”) & pressed ‘me’/’not me’ buttons

–> self-schematic pps were faster to identify whether a word characterised them (vs. aschematic pps)
[it didn’t matter whether it was an independent/dependent word, only if it was self-schematic]

53
Q

If we are self-schematic on the trait of ‘shyness’ (i.e. is important to our identity), what happens to this schema when we enter a situation where this dimension is relevant (e.g. a seminar)?

A

When we enter a situation where this dimension is relevant, it activates our shy self-schema & consequently influences our behaviour

54
Q

Self-Awareness theory claims that we have numerous versions of the self. What are they?

A

The actual self

The ideal self

55
Q

We tend to compare these versions of the self but there may be a discrepancy.

How can we reduce this discrepancy?

A

To reduce this discrepancy, we can either…

  • focus on the discrepancy & alter our behaviour so that we become more like our ideal self (this can be hard - if we fail it can lead to reduced motivation & make us feel worse about ourselves) OR
  • we can escape self-awareness (not focus on the discrepancy) – this can be destructive
56
Q

Who proposed Self-Discrepancy theory?

A

Higgins (1987)

57
Q

Self-Discrepancy theory claims that we have numerous versions of the self. What are they?

A

The actual self
The ideal self
The ought self

58
Q

What is the ‘ought self’?

A

Who we THINK we should be in relation to how others see us/how we think others see us

59
Q

What emotions might a discrepancy between our actual + ideal selves lead to?

A

A discrepancy between our actual + ideal selves might lead to negative emotions (the bigger the discrepancy = greater the discomfort)

60
Q

We feel motivated to alter our behaviour to reduce the discrepancy between our actual + alternative selves. What effect might this have on our emotions?

A

If we reduce the discrepancy, it will reduce our negative emotions

61
Q

What determines whether we alter our behaviour to reduce the discrepancy between our different selves?

A

Whether we change depends on how motivated we are

62
Q

The motivation to reduce the discrepancy between our ideal + alternative selves is driven by…

A
  • the amount of discrepancy
  • how important it is to us
  • how focused we are on the discrepancy
63
Q

How does the amount of discrepancy affect our motivation?

A

If there is a small discrepancy = less motivated

If there is a large discrepancy = feel discomfort so are more motivated

64
Q

How does the importance of the discrepancy affect our motivation?

A

If the discrepancy doesn’t matter = less motivated

If the discrepancy does matter = more motivated

65
Q

How does the amount of focus we have on the discrepancy affect our motivation?

A

If we are not focusing on the discrepancy = less motivated

If we are focusing on the discrepancy = more motivated

66
Q

What happens when there is a discrepancy between our actual + ideal selves?

A

We fail to reach positive outcomes = failure of promotion goals → leads to depression-related emotions (sadness, dissatisfaction)

67
Q

What happens when there is a discrepancy between our actual + ought selves?

A

We fail to avoid negative outcomes = failure of prevention goals → leads to anxiety-related emotions (fear, agitation)

68
Q

Higgins et al. (1986) identified pps with low OR high discrepancy between their actual + ideal selves OR their actual + ought selves
Pps focused on & described the difference between actual + ideal/ought self.

What did Higgins et al. (1986) find?

A

Higgins et al. (1986)

Pps with HIGH discrepancies:

  • when they were told to focus on the discrepancy between their actual + IDEAL selves, they displayed depression emotions (dejection)
  • when they were told to focus on the discrepancy between their actual + OUGHT selves, they displayed anxiety emotions (agitation)

Pps with LOW discrepancies:

  • no significant change to either emotion
  • if you have low discrepancy, you tend to be quite content & less motivated to make changes
69
Q

Who proposed Social Comparison theory?

A

Festinger (1954)

70
Q

Self-Awareness & Self-Discrepancy theories are about comparing our actual selves against alternative selves.

What is the Social Comparison theory about?

A

Social Comparison theory is about comparing ourselves to other

71
Q

Our goal determines our we compare ourselves to others.

What types of goal are there?

A
  • self-improvement goals
  • self-enhancement goals
  • accurate self-evaluation
72
Q

What are self-improvement goals?

A

We make an upward social comparison – look to others who are more successful

This inspires us to do better & become more like them

73
Q

What are self-enhancement goals?

A

We make a downward social comparison – look to others who are less successful than us

This makes us feel better about ourselves

74
Q

What is accurate self-evaluation?

A

A combination of upward & downward social comparison
- some people will be better/worse than us

OR we compare ourselves to others in a similar position to us

75
Q

Who proposed Self-Evaluation Maintenance theory?

A

Tesser (1988)

76
Q

The success of people close to us affects our self-esteem.

What types of behaviours might we engage in, & what effect will it have on our self-esteem, when others accomplish things?

A
  1. Social reflection - our self-esteem is boosted by others’ accomplishments
  2. Social comparison - our self-esteem is threatened by others’ accomplishments
77
Q

What determines whether we will engage in social reflection or social comparison?

A
  • relevance

- certainty

78
Q

If the other person is successful in a domain that is irrelevant to you AND/OR you feel certain about your ability in that domain, what behave will we engage in?

Reflection/comparison?

A

Social reflection - this will have no negative impact on our self-esteem

79
Q

If the other person is successful in a domain that is relevant to you AND you feel uncertain about your ability in that domain, what behave will we engage in?

Reflection/comparison?

A

Social comparison - this will have a negative impact on our self-esteem

[both relevance & uncertainty must be in place to engage in social comparison]

80
Q

Through which strategies might we be able to maintain a positive self-concept (& boost our self-esteem if it is threatened)?

A
  1. Exaggerate the ability of the successful target
  2. Change the target of comparison
  3. Distance ourselves from the successful target
  4. Devalue the dimension of comparison
81
Q

Who proposed the idea of ‘conventional wisdom’?

A

Baumeister, Smart & Boden (1996)

82
Q

What is ‘conventional wisdom’?

A

If we have low self-esteem, we are more likely to engage in violence

83
Q

What did Baumeister, Smart & Boden (1996) do to study ‘conventional wisdom’?

A

They reviewed evidence about violence & crime & found low SE DOESN’T increase violence

Violence is usually the result of threatened egoism (= highly favourable views of the self that are disputed by someone/a circumstance)

Inflated/unstable beliefs in the self’s superiority may be prone to encountering threats → leads to violence

A mediating process may involve directing your anger outward to avoid a downward revision of the self-concept

84
Q

Who proposed the Collective Constructionist theory of the Self?

A

Kitayama, Markus, Matsumoto & Norasakkunkit (1997)

85
Q

What is the basis of the Collective Constructionist theory of the Self?

A

Many psychological processes (incl. enhancement of the self (which is widespread in the US), & criticism & subsequent improvement of the self (widespread in Japan)) support ways in which social acts & situations are defined & experienced in cultural contexts

86
Q

How can we apply the Collective Constructionist theory of the Self to people in America & Japan?

A

American situations are conducive to self-enhancement & Americans are likely to engage in self-enhancement

Japanese situations are conducive to self-criticism & Japanese people are likely to engage in self-criticism

Personality & social (12 decks)

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