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Neuroanatomy Flashcards

1
Q

Where do the superior and inferior colliculus sit?

A

On the dorsal brainstem in the midbrain, just medial to the thalami

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2
Q

Where do the pyramids sit?

A

On the ventral brainstem, in the medulla just below the pons. Medial to the olives

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3
Q

Where are the olives found?

A

Ventral brainstem medulla - lateral to the pyramids

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4
Q

What demarcates the midbrain from the pons on the dorsal brainstem?

A

The inferior border of the inferior colliculus

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5
Q

Which cranial nerve nuclei are found in the midbrain?

A

Oculomotor

Trochlear

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6
Q

Which autonomic nucleus is found in the brainstem?

A

Edinger-Westphal nucleus - parasympathetic fibres

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7
Q

How do the parasympathetic fibres originate and travel to the eye and what do they innervate?

A

Originate in the EW nucleus in the midbrain. Travel with CN3 to the ciliary ganglion and then sphincter papillae and the ciliary muscles

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8
Q

Which cranial nerve nuclei are found in the pons?

A 
Trigeminal motor nucleus
Part of the trigeminal sensory nucleus
Abducens
Facial motor nucleus
Part of the vestibular and cochlear nuclei
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9
Q

What autonomic nucleus is found in the pons? Which type are they?

A

Superior and inferior salivatory nuclei

Parasympathetic

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10
Q

Where is the nucleus accumbens found?

A

In the basal ganglia - ventral striatum, underneath the caudate nucleus and putamen

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11
Q

Where is the nucleus ambiguus found? What does it do?

A

In the medulla

Contains CN 9, 10 and 11 information - hence innervates the pharynx and larynx

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12
Q

Which brainstem nucleus is responsible for nerves to the pharynx and larynx?

A

Nucleus ambiguus - CN9, 10 and 11

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13
Q

What is the nucleus solitarius?

A

Responsible for visceral sensory afferents including taste

ANS information including baroreceptors, chemoreceptors to hypothalamus

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14
Q

Where is the nucleus solitarius found?

A

Medulla

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15
Q

What nucleus is responsible for visceral afferents, including taste?

A

Nucleus solitarius

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16
Q

What cranial nerve nuclei are found in the medulla?

A 
Nucleus solitarius
Part of the trigeminal sensory nucleus
Part of the vestibular and cochlear nucleus 
Nucleus ambiguus
Vagus nucleus
Hypoglossal nucleus
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17
Q

Where are the mammillary bodies found?

A

Ventral surface of the hypothalamus - rostral to the midbrain, visible on the ventral surface

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18
Q

Where is the pineal gland found?

A

Postero-superior to the thalamus

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19
Q

Where are the specific thalamic nuclei found?

A

The ventral portion of the lateral nuclear group

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20
Q

What are the afferents and efferent to the ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus?

A

Afferents - spinothalamic, medial lemniscus and trigeminothalamic tracts
Efferent - primary somatosensory cortex

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21
Q

What are the afferents and efferent of the lateral geniculate nucleus?

A

Afferents - visual (optic tract) - contralateral 1/2 of visual field
Efferent - primary visual cortex via the optic radiations

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22
Q

What are the afferent and efferent of the medial geniculate nucleus?

A

Afferent - auditory info (from inferior colliculus of midbrain)
Efferent - primary auditory cortex

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23
Q

What is the inferior colliculus for?

A

Projects afferent auditory information to the thalamus

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24
Q

What are the afferent and efferent of the ventral anterior nucleus of the thalamus?

A

Afferent - ipsilateral basal ganglia and substantia nigra

Efferent - premotor association cortex

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25
Q

What are the afferents and efferents of the ventral lateral nucleus of the thalamus?

A

Afferents - ipsilateral globus pallidus, substantia nigra and contralateral dentate nucleus of cerebellum
Efferents - primary motor cortex

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26
Q

What part of the thalamus projects to the primary motor cortex?

A

Ventral lateral nucleus

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27
Q

What part of the thalamus projects to the premotor association cortex?

A

Ventral anterior nucleus

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28
Q

What part of the thalamus projects to the primary somatosensory cortex?

A

Ventral posterior nucleus

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29
Q

What part of the thalamus projects to the auditory cortex?

A

Medial geniculate nucleus

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30
Q

What part of the thalamus projects to the visual cortex?

A

Lateral geniculate nucleus

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31
Q

Which parts of the thalamus have limbic connections?

A

Anterior nuclear group - afferents from mammillary bodies via mammillothalamic tract, efferents to the cingulate gyrus
Lateral dorsal nucleus - afferent from the hippocampus, efferent to the cingulate gyrus

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32
Q

What is the pulvinar region of the thalamus connected to?

A

Parietal, temporal and occipital association cortices

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33
Q

What does the lateral posterior nucleus of the thalamus connect to?

A

Sensory association cortex of the parietal lobe

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34
Q

What are the afferents and efferent of the medial nuclear group of the thalamus?

A

Afferents from hypothalamus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex and other thalamic nuclei
Efferents to the prefrontal cortex

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35
Q

Which part of the thalamus is responsible for connections with the prefrontal cortex?

A

Medial nuclear group

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36
Q

What are the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus involved with?

A

Afferents from brainstem (reticular activating formation), spinothalamic and trigeminothalamic tract
Efferents to cortex, caudate nucleus and putamen
Involved in ‘activation’ of the cortex

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37
Q

What part of the thalamus is involved with activating the cerebral cortex via connections with the brainstem reticular activating formation?

A

Intralaminar nuclei

38
Q

What does the pineal gland do?

A

Produces melatonin; involved in sleep wake regulation

39
Q

What do lesions of the subthalamus cause?

A

Hemiballismus

40
Q

What constellation of symptoms do thalamic lesions cause?

A

Contralateral sensation loss, often in face, limbs
Thalamic pain in the anaesthetic areas
‘Focal’ cortical lesions

41
Q

Which part of the thalamus has connections with the parietal, occipital and temporal association cortices?

A

Pulvinar

42
Q

What forms the lenticular nucleus anatomically?

A

Putamen and globus pallidus

43
Q

What forms the neostriatum functionally?

A

Putamen and caudate nucleus

44
Q

How are the basal ganglia arranged?

A

Putamen connects to head of caudate anteriorly, which extends posteriorly and medially
Globus pallidus sits medial to putamen, lateral to anterior limb of internal capsule

45
Q

What is the amygdala attached to?

A

Sits at the end of the caudate nucleus anteriorly

46
Q

Which part of the basal ganglia is functionally related to the substantia nigra?

A

Globus pallidus

47
Q

Which part of the basal ganglia receives most of the afferents? What are these afferents?

A

Striatum - putamen and caudate nucleus
Afferents from corticostriatal fibres (motor to putamen), thalamostriatal projections from the interlaminar nuclei and nigrostriatal projections

48
Q

Where do striatal efferents project to?

A

Globus pallidus

Pars reticulata of substantia nigra

49
Q

Where does the globus pallidus receive afferents from?

A

Striatum

Subthalamic nuclei

50
Q

Where do efferents from the globus pallidus project to?

A

Inhibitory fibres to subthalamic nucleus

Pallidus and pars reticulata of substantia nigra project jointly to the thalamus

51
Q

What are the major functional efferents from the basal ganglia?

A

Pallidothalamic fibres to the ventral anterior and lateral thalamic nuclei

52
Q

How does Huntington’s disease result in abnormal movements?

A

Scarcity of striatal neurones which project to the external segment of the globus pallidus (the inhibitory, indirect pathway)
This leads to disinhibition of external pallidal neurons, leading to inhibition of the subthalamic nucleus
Internal pallidal neurons become underactive leading to unwanted movements

53
Q

What are the targets for DBS in PD?

A

Internal pallidus

Subthalamic nucleus

54
Q

What are the anterior-most hypothalamic nuclei and where do they project?

A

Paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei

Project directly to the neurohypophysis

55
Q

Where is the lateral hypothalamus and what does it control?

A

Just medial/ventral to the subthalamus

Controls food and water intake, so lesions may lead to anorexia or adipsia

56
Q

What does the medial hypothalamus contain?

A

Nuclei:
Paraventricular produces oxytocin
Supraoptic produces vasopressin
Suprachiasmatic nucleus - sleep wake cycle
Ventromedial nucleus - food and fluid intake

57
Q

What do lesions of the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus cause?

A

Abnormally increased food intake

58
Q

What is the major input to the limbic system?

A

Modal-specific sensory information collected and referred to the inferior parieto-occipital association areas (perceptuospatial functions)
This is then conveyed to the inferior frontal association areas (planned behaviour regulation) and the inferior temporal association areas (supramodal status and meaning - semantic processing)

59
Q

What are the major amygdala afferents?

A

Inferior temporal association cortex
Septum
Olfactory tract

60
Q

What are the 2 major amygdala efferents?

A 
Amygdalofugal tracts to hypothalamus 
Stria terminalis (via wall of third ventricle) to hypothalamus
61
Q

What comprises the hippocampal formation?

A

Hippocampus
Dentate gyrus
Parts of parahippocampus

62
Q

Where is the dentate gyrus?

A

Between the hippocampus and parahippocampus

63
Q

What are the 2 major hippocampal afferents?

A

Inferior temporal cortex

Entorhinal area of temporal lobe

64
Q

What is the major hippocampal efferent and where does it go?

A

Fornix - to mammillary bodies

65
Q

Where is the fornix?

A

Sits just inferior/inside the corpus callosum

66
Q

What are the two major efferents from the mammillary bodies?

A

Anterior nuclear group of thalamus

Brainstem via medullotegmental tract

67
Q

What is the structural relationship between the cingulate gyrus, parahippocampus and corpus callosum?

A

Cingulate gyrus and parahippocampus are continuous with one another above/outside the corpus callosum

68
Q

Neural activation of the anterior and posterior hypothalamus generally causes what?

A

Anterior - parasympathetic activity

Posterior - sympathetic activity

69
Q

What are the 3 major inputs to the striatum and where do they come from?

A

Thalamostriatal - interlaminar nuclei
Corticostriatal - cortex
Nigrostriatal - from SNc

70
Q

Of the four major frontal subcortical loops, which afferent to the putamen and which input to the caudate?

A

Motor -> putamen

Oculomotor, limbic and prefrontal -> caudate

71
Q

What are the 4 major frontal subcortical circuits?

A

Motor
Limbic
Prefrontal
Oculomotor

72
Q

What are the striatal efferents?

A

Indirect pathway to GPe and STN
Direct pathway to GPi
SNr

73
Q

What are the overall striatal efferents?

A

GPi and SNr

74
Q

Where do the GPi and SNr project? What nuclei, in what way and what neurotransmitter?

A

Thalamus motor nuclei (ventral anterior and lateral) - inhibitory via GABA

75
Q

What are the two major divisions of the substantia nigra and which neurotransmitters do they utilise?

A

Pars reticulata - GABA

Pars compacta - DA

76
Q

Describe the pathology of Huntington’s chorea in terms of direct and indirect pathways in the basal ganglia?

A

HD is characterised by loss of GABAergic indirect pathway neurons projecting from the striatum to the GPe
This results in underactivity of the inhibitory indirect pathway; disinhibition of the GPe, increased inhibition of GPi/SNr neurons and loss of inhibition of involuntary movements via thalamic outputs

77
Q

How does DBS for PD work in terms of the schematic BG model?

A

Stimulators inhibit either GPi or STN; either way the net result is loss of inhibition of the thalamus leading to reduction of unwanted movements

78
Q

What are the afferents in the Oculomotor frontal-subcortical loop?

A

Frontal eye fields (FEF) and supplementary eye fields (SEF)

79
Q

How do the FEF and SEF effect gaze and saccades?

A

They activate gaze centres for voluntary saccades

They activate the Oculomotor loop, disinhibiting the superior colliculus

80
Q

What relationship does the SNr have with eye movements? When is it active?

A

SNr has inhibitory projections to the superior colliculus; it is active when the eyes are at rest

81
Q

What are the two primitive eye reflexes involved in gaze and saccades?

A

Visual Grasp Reflex VGR - causes eye movement in direction of a suddenly approaching stimulus
Fixation reflex - anchors the eye on a foveated stimulus

82
Q

What and where are the neurons that govern the fixation and VGR reflexes?

A

Fixation and saccade neurons respectively, both found in the superior colliculus

83
Q

What process is associated with voluntary control over the fixation and VGR reflexes?

A

Maturation of the frontal-nigral (SNr)-collicular pathways

84
Q

What is the relationship between the SNc and the corticostriatal pathways?

A

Dopamine differentially regulates the activity of the direct and indirect pathways; the direct pathway neurons express excitatory D1 receptors, and the indirect pathway neurons express inhibitory D2 receptors. Decreased dopaminergic activity therefore decreases direct pathway activity and increases indirect pathway activity

85
Q

What is Fahr’s disease?

A

Idiopathic autosomal dominant calcification of the basal ganglia, mostly GPi

86
Q

What names are given to the corticospinal tract as it runs down through the body?

A

Above basal ganglia - part of corona radiata
Between BG and pons it is crus cerebri
Below pons it is CS tract

87
Q

What is contained in the external capsule?

A

Corticocortical association fibres

Cholinergic fibres from basal forebrain to cerebral cortex

88
Q

What 2 connections are made in the extreme capsule?

A

Association fibres between Broca and Wernicke, and the claustrum and insula

89
Q

What is the claustrum thought to do?

A

Seamless quality of conscious experience

Intersense integration

90
Q

Where is the claustrum?

A

Between the putamen and external capsule, and the extreme capsule and insula

91
Q

What is notable about the cytoarchitecture of the claustrum?

A

Poverty/uniformality of cell types

92
Q

What are the four major commissures in the brain?

A

Corpus callosum
Anterior and posterior commissures
Fornix

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