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Infant and Child Development > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

body growth

A
  • slow, regular pattern
  • 2-3 inches in height; 4-5 lbs per year
  • appear long-legged (lower portion of body grows faster)
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2
Q

boys vs girls body growth

A
  • height and weight: girls are shorter and lighter than boys until about 9 years old
  • fat-muscle ratio: girls have slightly more body fat but after 8 years old - they accumulate fat at faster rate (pre-puberty)
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3
Q

secular trend

A
  • change in body size across generations
  • industrialized countries: larger and heavier
  • due to faster rate of physical maturity: improved health and nutrition
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4
Q

Skeletal Growth

A
  • bones lengthen and broaden

- ligaments aren’t attached allowing flexibility

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5
Q

teeth

A
  • betwen 6 and 12: 20 primary teeth are lost/replaced

- 50% of school-aged kids have at least some tooth decay (low SES more at risk)

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6
Q

Maloclussion

A
  • misalignment of the teeth
  • upper and lower teeth don’t meet
  • affect 1/3 of school aged children
  • causes: heredity, thumb sucking, extra teeth
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7
Q

Brain Development

A
  • brain weight increases by 10% (adult weight reached)

- white matter and gray matter

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8
Q

white matter (brain)

A

-myelinated nerve fibers in frontal lobes of cerebral cortex increases (acquire complex abilities)

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9
Q

gray matter (brain)

A

neurons and supportive material declines

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10
Q

lateralization

A

greater in both hemispheres

-synaptic connections and myelination occur at same time as synaptic pruining

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11
Q

neurotransmitters

A
  • permit communication
  • neurons become selective and thinking becomes flexible
  • specific neurotransmitters may affect cognition (thinking, social/emotional adjustment)
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12
Q

hormones

A
  • influences changes in brain functions

- changes in behavior

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13
Q

myopia

A

-near-sightedness
-can see close but not far away
Causes: genetics, early biological trauma (low birth weight), experience (reading and close work/computer)

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14
Q

Otitis Media

A
  • ear infections decrease
  • eustachian tube: longer, narrower, slanted
  • chronic, untreated: hearing loss
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15
Q

Malnutrition leads to…

A
  • stunted growth
  • low IQ
  • poor motor coordination
  • inattention
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16
Q

Obesity

A
  • BMI
  • overweight: BMI > 85th and 95th percentile same age/sex

-In the US, there are about 30% of children who are overweight and 17% are obese

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17
Q

BMI

A

“body mass index”

  • measure of body fat based on weight and height
  • calculated using the ratio of weight to height
  • BMI does NOT measure body fat directly but it is a reasonable indicator of body “fatness” for children
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18
Q

Causes of Obesity

A
  • genetics
  • environment
  • sleep
  • undernourished
  • feeding practices
  • external stimuli
  • physical activity (lack of)
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19
Q

Bedwetting

A

-common health problem
-“nocturnal enuresis”
-occurs in about 10% of school-aged children
Causes: muscular response to inhibit urination fails, hormonal imbalance allows urine to accumulate, difficulty awakening to a full bladder

Treatment: antidepressant drugs (short-term fix) or urine alarm (conditioning to wake child)

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20
Q

most common chronic illness?

A

ashthma

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21
Q

Gross motor improvements

A
  • balance improves
  • agility
  • flexibility
  • force
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22
Q

fine motor improvements

A
  • writing: legibility and accuracy

- drawing: organization, detail, depth

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23
Q

physical play

A
  • child organized games (informal)

- adult organized games (formal)

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24
Q

Child organized games

A
  • informal
  • games with rules common
  • invented games
  • gains in perspective taking
  • participation = understands fairness
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25
Q

Adult organized games

A

-formal
-50% (60% boys;37% girls) participate
Advantages: increase self-esteem and social skills
Disadvantages: emphasizes competition, criticisms can cause anxiety, early exposure = loss interest

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26
Q

Physical Education in schools

A
  • 15% of US schools provide physical education to students 3 times a week
  • leads to poor health (lack phys ed) - only 49% (b) and 35%(g) exercise for 1+ hours a day
  • solution: more frequent physical edu and/or change content
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27
Q

Recess in schools

A
  • 7% of US schools no longer provide recess and many others have recess once a day
  • Benefits: boost children’s learning capability, regular and unstructured recess fosters children’s competence
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28
Q

Unintentional injuries

A 
Most common: motor vehicle accidents, bikes, and pedestrian
-boys more at risk
Prevention:
- school based education -- teach safety
- model safe behavior
-require helmets
-watch high-risk children
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29
Q

individual differences in motor development

A

Genetics:

  • body build
  • Child’s sex: boys are better with gross motor (i.e., throwing and kicking) and girls are better at fine motor skills and flexibility

Environment:

  • parent encouragement/expectations
  • family income (limits access to lessons/equipment)
  • school/community lessons (may make resources available)
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30
Q

Development of memory strategies

A
  • Rehearsal (early grade school)
  • Organization
  • Elaboration

**school promotes using these strategies

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31
Q

Rehearsal (mem strategies)

A

repeating info to oneself

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32
Q

Organization (mem strategies)

A
  • grouping related items together
  • gain in processing capacity – use several strategies
  • test strategies: determine which works best and how to combine effectively
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33
Q

Elaboration (mem strategies)

A
  • creating a relationship between pieces of information not in the same category
  • meaningful chunks of information
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34
Q

Long-term memory knowledge based

A

arrange knowledge in larger, organized, elaborate hierarchically structured networks
-know more about a topic: makes new information more meaningful/familiar; easier to store and revive

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35
Q

Theory of Mind

A
  • beliefs about mental activities
  • Metacognition
  • knowledge of cognitive capacities: allows skills to monitor progress, sees mind as an active, constructive agent
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36
Q

Metacognition

A
  • awareness of thought processes
  • becomes more elaborate and refined
  • reflect on their own mental life
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37
Q

Cognitive Self-Regulation

A

(not very good)

  • monitoring progress toward a goal
  • checking outcomes
  • redirecting unsuccessful effort

To promote:

  • point out important features/demands of tasks
  • suggest effective learning strategies
  • emphasize monitoring progress and vale self-correction
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38
Q

factors that contribute to Reading

A
  • phonological awareness
  • information processing speed increases
  • visual scanning and discrimination
  • practice
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39
Q

How to teach reading?

A
  • whole language: expose to text in complete form; reading parallels natural language
  • phonics: coach on the basic rules for translating written symbols in sounds
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40
Q

Mathematics

A

-learn facts and skills through practice, reasoning, and strategies

Debate: drill vs. “number sense”
- number senses: understand numbers and use them to explain and solve quantitative problems

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41
Q

Individual differences in cognition

A
  • Defining and measuring IQ
    • IQ represents general intelligence and reasoning
    • intelligence: many mental capacities (not on tests)
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42
Q

Group Tests (IQ test)

A
  • require little training
  • allow large group testing
  • instructional planning
  • identify students who need individual testing
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43
Q

Individual Tests (IQ test)

A
  • examiners need training and experience

- identifies highly intelligent and children with learning problems

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44
Q

Stanford-Binet (IQ test)

A
  • general knowledge
  • quanitative reasoning
  • visual-spatial reasoning
  • working memory
  • information processing
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45
Q

Wechsler Scales (IQ test)

A
  • WISC-IV (6-16 yrs); WIPPSI-III (2.5-7yrs)
  • verbal reasoning
  • perceptual (or visual-spatial) reasoning
  • working memory
  • processing speed
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46
Q

Language Development

A

grammar, vocab, and pragmatics

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47
Q

Vocab (language develop)

A
  • increases fourfold during school year: 20 new words a day

- understand multiple meaning (bright); metaphors (jump in shower)

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48
Q

Grammar (language develop)

A
  • mastery of complex constructions (passive)

- advanced understanding of infinitive phrases (anxious)

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49
Q

Pragmatics (language develop)

A
  • adjust to people and situations

- phrase requests to get what they want

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50
Q

bilingual development

A
  1. learn both languages at the same time

2. learn one language after the other

51
Q

bilingualism

A

-improved selective attention, analytical reasoning, concept formation, cognitive flexibility

52
Q

Educational Philosophies

A
  • traditional
  • constructivist
  • social constructivist
53
Q

Tradition Educational Philosophies

A

Teacher: authority of knowledge, rules, and decisions

Students: passive, listen, respond, complete tasks

54
Q

Constructivist Educational Philosophies

A

i.e., Montessori Schools
Teacher: guides, supports children’s needs

Students: construct their own knowledge, evaluated their progress by their own development

55
Q

Social Constructivist Educational Philosophies

A

Teacher and children learn together (partners in learning)

56
Q

Good Teachers

A

caring, helpful, stimulating

  • too many use repetitive drills
  • better achievement in stimulating classrooms
57
Q

Individual differences in teacher-student interactions

A
  • well-behaved, high-achievers get more attention
  • more impact of attention on low SES
  • educational self-fulfilling prophecy: children adopt to teachers positive and negative views and start to live up to them
58
Q

Grouping Practices in Elementary Schools

A

-Homogeneous ability groups: widens gap

-multigrade classrooms:
more favorable academics, peer tutoring, cooperative learning

59
Q

Computers

A

Educational Software:

  • practice basic skills, solve problems
  • acquire new knowledge

Word Processing
-write freely and experiment with letters and words

Programming Skills

Homework

60
Q

Industry (erikson)

A

(vs. Inferiority)

Positive Resolution

  • develop a sense of competence at useful skills/tasks
  • school provides many opportunities
  • leads to positive, realistic self concept, pride in accomplishment and moral responsibility
61
Q

Inferiority (erikson)

A

(vs. Industry)

Negative Resolution

  • pessimism and lack of confidence in ability to do things
  • family environment, teachers, peers contribute
62
Q

self-concept

A
  • general dipositions
  • social comparisons
  • ideal and real self
  • reference social groups
63
Q

General dispositions (self-concept)

A
  • emphasize their competencies

- “I’m a good swimmer”;”I’m nice”

64
Q

Social Comparisons (self-concept)

A

-more realistic, balanced self

65
Q

Ideal and Real Self (self-concept)

A

expectations and comparisons help ideal evaluate real

66
Q

Reference Social Groups

A

need feedback from peers

67
Q

Self-esteem

A

Drops first few years in school, then rises

By 6-7 years old:
Hierarchical structure:
-Athletic (physical)
-Social (social/emotional)
-Academic (cognition)
-Physical Appearance (physical)
68
Q

Influences on Self-Esteem

A

Culture
Parents’/Teachers gender sterotype
Child rearing Practices
Attributes

69
Q

Culture (self-esteem)

A
  • asian culture: lower in self-esteem (emphasize comparison)

- african american: higher self-esteem (warm family)

70
Q

Parents’/Teachers’ gender stereotypes (self-esteem)

A
  • girls: language arts, social acceptance

- boy: math, science, athletic

71
Q

Child-Rearing practices

A

warm, accepting: children feel competent and worthwhile

72
Q

Attributes

A
  • common explanations for causes of behavior
  • mastery-oriented
  • learned helplessness
73
Q

Mastery-Oriented

A

Reason for success: ability
Reason for failure: controllable (external) factors (“i should have studied more); can be changed by working hard

children focus on learning goals and seek information about how to increase ability through effort

74
Q

Learned Helplessness

A

Reason for success: external factors (“The test was easy”)
Reason for failure: ability (“I just can’t do it”); CANNOT be changed by working hard

children focus on performance goals and obtain positive and avoid negative evaluation of their ability

75
Q

influences on achievement-related attributes

A

Parents
Teachers
Gender differences
Cultural values

76
Q

Parents (achievement)

A
  • too-high standards
  • believe child incapable
  • trait statements (“you’re so smart”)
77
Q

Teachers (achievement)

A

learning vs. performance goals

78
Q

Gender Differences

A

girls tend to blame poor performance on ability

79
Q

Cultural values

A

attend to failure, not to success

80
Q

self-conscious emotions

A

Pride: motivates further challenges
Guilt: wants to make amends and strive for improvements
Shame: result of insensitive reprimand – causes withdrawal, depression, and anger

81
Q

emotional understanding

A
  • explain emotion using internal thoughts
  • understand mixed emotions
  • rise in empathy
  • supported by cognitive development and social experience
  • can reconcile contradictory cues (i.e., happy tears)
82
Q

emotional self-regulation

A
  • motivated by self-esteem and peer approval

- emotional self-efficacy

83
Q

problem-centered coping

A
  • situation is seen as changeable
  • difficulty is identified
  • devision made on what to do
84
Q

emotion-centered coping

A
  • used in problem-centered coping does not work
  • internal, private and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about an outcome
  • goal is emotional self-efficacy
85
Q

Selman’s stages of Perspective Taking

A 
level 0: undifferentiated (3-6y)
level 1: social-informational (4-9y)
level 2: self-reflective (7-12y)
level 3: third-party (10-15y)
level 4: societal (14 to adult years)
86
Q

Level 0 (selman)

A

undifferentiated (3-6y)

recognize different thoughts and feelings, but they confuse them

87
Q

Level 1 (selman)

A

social-informational (4-9y)

understand that different perspectives result because people have different information

88
Q

Level 2 (selman)

A

self-reflective (7-12y)

take another’s perspective and realize other’s can too

89
Q

Level 3 (selman)

A

third-party (10-15 y)

can imagine how self and other are viewed by someone else

90
Q

Level 4 (selman)

A

societal (14+)

3rd party perspective can be influenced by societal values

91
Q

Distributive Justice

A

-how to divide fairly

Strict Equality (5-6y)

Merit (6-7y) :extra reward for exceptional or hard work

Benevolence (8+y): special consideration for disadvantaged

92
Q

Moral Development

A
  • more flexible understanding of moral rules

- lying not always bad; truth not always good (white lies to spare feelings)

93
Q

3 types of moral “rules”

A
  1. moral rule: how people should behave toward each other
  2. social convention: agreed upon to rules
  3. personal preference: behaviors in the private sphere
94
Q

friendships

A

become very important

  • complex and psychological based
  • important components: trust, personal qualities
  • similar to self
95
Q

Peer acceptance

A
  • how child is viewed as worthy social partner

- Acceptance = predictor of (current/later) adjustment

96
Q

Popular-prosocial

A

-combine academic and social competence

perform well in school, communicate with peers in friendly and cooperative ways, and solve social problems constructively

97
Q

Popular-antisocial

A
  • “tough” boys: athletically skilled but poor students who cause trouble and defy adult authority
  • relationally aggressive boys and girls who enhance their own status by ignoring, excluding, and spreading rumors about other children
98
Q

Rejected-agressive

A
  • show high rates of conflicy, physical and relational aggression, and hyperactive, inattentive, and impulsive behavior
  • interpret innocent behaviors by peers as hostile and blame others for their social difficulties
99
Q

Rejected-withdrawn

A
  • passive and socially awkward
  • overwhelmed by social anxiety, hold negative expectations for treatment by peers, and worry about being scorned and attacked
100
Q

Controversial children

A
  • display a blend of positive and negative social behaviors

- hostile and disruptive but also engage in positive, prosocial acts

101
Q

Neglected Children

A
  • well-adjusted

- engage in low rates of interaction, most are just as socially skilled as peers

102
Q

gender stereotypes

A
  • personality traits (i.e., tough, gentle) increases during middle childhood
  • achievement areas (i.e., math and art) become “feminine” (art) and “masculine” (math)
103
Q

parent-child family relationships

A
  • time decreases with autonomy
  • child-rearing becomes “easier”
  • coregulation: cooperative supervision
104
Q

Siblings

A
  • rivalry increases with comparison especially same-sex siblings that are close in age
  • companionship and assistance in academic and peer challenges
  • need parental encouragement
105
Q

Families with one child

A
  • high in self-esteem, achievement, motivation, and academics
  • close relationships with parents (pressure for mastery)
  • peer acceptance may be a problem due to lack of conflict resolution
106
Q

Divorced families

A

-60% of first marriages divorce and 40% have children

it’s a transition: new living space, financial changes, and family roles/responsibilities change

107
Q

Immediate consequences of divorce

A

Conflict: division of property and custody

Stress: disorganized, drop in income

Parenting: harsh/inconsistent discipline

Adjustment: stress, depression, anxiety

108
Q

Long-term consequences of divorce

A

Adjustment: improves after 2 years

Problems: boys and difficult temperaments

Education: less likely to continue education (financial)

Father involvement: affects adjustment

109
Q

How to help

A
  • protect from conflict

- use authoritative parenting

110
Q

Authoritative parenting

A

high acceptance, high involvement, adaptive control, and appropriate autonomy

111
Q

Authoritarian parenting

A

low acceptance, low involvement, high control, and low autonomy

112
Q

permissive parenting

A

hight acceptance, too low or too high involvement, low control, and high autonomy

113
Q

uninvolved parenting

A

low acceptance, low involvement, low control, indifferent to autonomy

114
Q

Never-married single parent families

A
  • involved in early pregnancies and may use/abuse drugs
  • does poorly in school and less likely to go to college
  • engage in delinquent acts and aggressive
  • difficulty obtaining employment after they finish education
  • emotional and personality problems
115
Q

Blended families

A
  • most common is mother and stepfather
  • boy adjust quickly but girls tend to be resistant
  • girls don’t adapt quickly to stepmothers but can warm up
  • noncustodial father remarry can result in reduced contact
  • custodial father remarry often negative

-older children have a more difficult time with both circumstances

116
Q

Gay and Lesbian parents

A
  • no evidence of abnormal sexual identity
  • no differences in adjustment
  • social relationships may suffer from being teased by peers but overall these kids are fine
  • no reason to believe there’s sexual abuse
117
Q

benefits of maternal employment

A
  • self-esteem is higher
  • relationships with family and peers are positive
  • fewer gender stereotypes
  • academic achievement is higher
  • girls have more achievement and more career oriented
118
Q

drawbacks of maternal employment

A
  • risk of ineffective parenting
  • reduced parental sensitivity, fewer joint activities
  • poorer cognitive development
119
Q

Moral imperatives

A

Rules and standards that protect people’s rights and welfare

  • seen as worse (I.e., hitting and stealing) than social conventions (i.e., eating ice cream with your fingers)
  • moral violations would still be wrong even if an adult didn’t see them
120
Q

Social conventions

A

Customs setters mines solely by consensus

  • i.e., table manners and politeness rituals (saying please and thank you)
  • societal views on how one should act/dress/talk/etc.
121
Q

Personal choice

A
  • choice of friends, hairstyle, and leisure activities

- doesn’t usually break any social conventions or moral rules

122
Q

Social learning theory in Gender identity

A

An approach that emphasizes the role of modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning, in the development of behavior

  • social learning theory comes before self-perceptions
  • preschoolers first acquire gender typed responses through modeling and reinforcement and only later organize these behaviors into gender linked ideas about themselves
123
Q

Cognitive developmental theory in Gender Identity

A

Maintains that self-perceptions come before behavior

-over the preschool years, children squire a cognitive appreciation of the permanence of their sex (gender constancy)

124
Q

Gender schema theory in Gender Identity

A

Information processing approach to gender typing that combines social learning and cognitive development features

-explains how environmental pressures and children’s cognitions work together to shape gender-role development

“Masculine” and “feminine” categories based on stereotypes

Infant and Child Development (2 decks)

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