5.3 How Does Economic Change Influence Patterns of Social Inequality in Places?

Question 1

What is social inequality?

Answer 1

Differences, based on factors such as age, ethnicity gender, religion, education and wealth, exist in a societies. Such differences often raise moral issues concerning inequality.
Because social differences vary from place to place geographers can make significant contributions to debates about spatial inequality.
The terms ‘quality of life’ and ‘standard of living are frequently used when discussing differences between places. It is important to distinguish between them as they are not the same.

Question 2

What are the physical indicators of QOL and SOL?

Answer 2

• Quality of housing
• Level of pollution (air/noise\0
• Incidence of litter
• Graffiti
• Vandalism

Question 3

What are the economic indicators of QOL and SOL?

Answer 3

• Access to leisure services, open spaces
• Access to employment (percentage unemployed long term, youth unemployment)
• Level of income
• Percentage of lone parent families
• Percentage of lone pensioners

Question 4

What are the political indicators of QOL and SOL?

Answer 4

• Opportunities to participate in the communities life and influence decisions (percentage voting in elections)

Question 5

What are the social indicators of QOL and SOL?

Answer 5

• Percentage on state benefits
• Standards of education (percentage staying on post 16 education or to degree standard)
• Standard and access to health facilities (percentage in poor health)
• Percentage on free school meals
• Fear of crime
• Incidence of crime

Question 6

What is quality of life?

Answer 6

the extent to which people’s needs and desires (social, psychological or physical) are met. This can be seen in areas such as the treatment of people. Are all people treated with equal dignity and do they have equal rights? Does everyone have reasonable access to services such as health care, education and leisure? Are all opinions heard and respected?

Question 7

What is standard of living?

Answer 7

the ability to access services and goods. This includes basics such as food and water, clothes housing and personal mobility.

Question 8

What are the main factors that social inequality influences?

Answer 8

Clearly income and wealth are significant factors in determining both standard of living and quality of life. Higher incomes tend to offer people greater choice of housing education and diet. But a rise in income may not always lead to improved quality of life. Longer hours at work, a longer daily commute, migration away from family and friends sometimes to a foreign country, poor air quality and pollution are examples of factors that can lead to a higher income and standard of living but can result in a lowering in the quality of life. In other words quality of life may be sacrificed for a higher income. When social inequalities lead to very great differences between groups of people, the term- deprivation is commonly used to refer to a context when quality of life and standard of living are low. Deprivation is more than just poverty. Poverty is not having enough money to support a decent standard of living whereas deprivation refers to a general lack of resources and opportunities. The UK government uses an Index of Multiple deprivation to assess relative levels of deprivation. Seven factors are combined to give an overall measurement: income, employment, health, education, crime, access to housing and services, and living environment such as air quality.
Povertypoor living conditionsill healthpoor educationpoor skillspoverty
All the smallest scale LSOA census units in the census can be ranked according to their Index of Multiple Deprivation score. This allows us to identify the most and least deprived areas in England and Wales and compare levels of deprivation between areas. It is important to understand that such indices do not tell us by how much one place is more or less deprived than another. For example, if a place has a rank of 80, it is not necessarily twice as deprived as a place with a rank of 160.

Question 9

How can income be measured for social inequality?

Answer 9

At the global scale the role of income in measuring social inequality is seen in the World Bank’s (2015) definition of extreme poverty: US$1.90/day PPP (purchasing power parity! Below this level of income, a person cannot afford to purchase the minimum amount of food and non-food essentials such as clothes and shelter. The use of purchasing power is important as the cost of obtaining a particular good or service can vary greatly from one country to another
Relative poverty is a useful measure as it relates the level of poverty to the distribution of income across the whole population. Each year the UK government publishes a survey of income poverty called the Households Below Average Income (HBA) The survey defines relative poverty as 60 per cent of the UK median household income. The provisional 2019 HBA report shows 14 million inhabitants of the UK, including some 2.7 million children, currently fall below this threshold
The USA also uses a poverty threshold to differentiate between poor and non-poor. It is a monetary value adjusted each year to take account of changes to inflation
The Gini coefficient is a technique that can be used to measure levels of income inequality within countries. It is defined as a ratio with values between 0 and 1.0. The lower the value the more equal is income distribution. A Gini coefficient of 1.0 would mean that all the income in a country was in the hands of one person while a value of O indicates that everyone in a country has equal income.

Question 10

How can housing be measured for social inequality?

Answer 10

Being able to afford accommodation of an adequate standard is closely related to income. At all scales social inequality is evident in the type and quality of housing people occupy
Housing tenure is an important indicator of social inequality. Owner-occupiers own their house outright. In many ACs this is achieved through borrowing money in the form of a mortgage which is normally paid back over 25 to 30 years. Some people rent from private landlords while others rent from a local authority (council). Charities and housing associations also provide subsidised accommodation for rent. In many LIDCS, housing tenure is complex, especially in the slum areas. In many such areas a well organised system of landlords and tenants exists. The term squatter settlement’ is often misleading and should only be used where people have no legal right to the land they occupy.

Question 11

How can education be measured for social inequality?

Answer 11

Formal education is provided by schools, colleges apprenticeships and universities. Informal education can be gained from doing something in the home or workplace, for example, learning how to cook at home or watching an older brother or sister milk a cow or repair some machinery. The acquisition of skills can be underestimated if only formal qualifications are measured. This is particularly true when studying societies in EDCs and LIDCs.
Contrasts in literacy levels give an indication of inequality in education. Literacy is a measure of the ability to read and write to a basic level. Globally there are clear contrasts among countries in levels of literacy and especially in terms of gender equality.

Question 12

How can health care be measured for social inequality?

Answer 12

Access to health care and levels of ill-health are closely associated with social inequality. The association between poverty and ill-health is very strong and reflects a number of influences. These influences include variables which are clearly health- focused such as number of health care professionals. The measure of number of doctors per 1000 people is often used to describe health inequality between places at the global scale.
In the UK, increasing attention is paid to unequal access to health care, the so-called ‘postcode lottery. Depending on where you live, the level of medical provision through the National Health Service varies.
In part these differences may reflect the priorities of Health Care Trusts and differences in morbidity and life expectancy.
But health is not just a matter of medical provision. Access to clean water, effective sanitation, quality and quantity of diet, type of housing and air quality. for example, have significant influences. It is also a matter of social behaviour and lifestyle, for example, attitudes towards vaccination and tobacco and alcohol consumption. HIV/AIDS has had a serious impact in places such as sub-Saharan Africa. In part this is due to the attitudes towards male-female relationships and ignorance.

Question 13

How can employment be measured for social inequality?

Answer 13

Whether a household includes someone who is in receipt of regular income has a profound impact on the standard of living and quality of life. Unemployment is perhaps the obvious measure but it is not always straightforward to assess. Not all countries take counts of employment and defining what counts as employment and what does not can be difficult.
Someone may be in employment but receiving only low wages. In ACs, it is generally the case that rural places have average incomes below those in towns and cities. In urban areas in LIDCS and EDCs millions of people make a living by working in the informal. sector of the economy. This offers a relatively easy way into employment but has drawbacks. For example, someone selling fruit or brooms on a street corner might work for ten hours or more in a day and yet still be unable to afford to live anywhere except in a slum settlement.
Social inequality exists at all scales. It is clear that an individual’s life chances are closely related to where they live.
Human Development Index (HDI)- a composite measure of inequality From 1990 the UN has produced an annual assessment of the level of development of each of its member states. It is based on economic and social indicators:
- Income adjusted to take account of purchasing power in the country Life expectancy at birth
- Education using the adult literacy rate and the average number of years spent in school
The index ranges from 1 (most developed) to (least developed). A high index equates to 0.8 and above, medium index from 0.5 to 0.79, and a low index is less than 0.5. The HDI highlights the great inequalities that exist between countries in both economic and social terms.

Question 14

Why do spatial variation in social inequality occur?

Answer 14

Inequalities exist at all scales from the global to the local. There are inequalities between urban places and rural places and there are also contrasts at the intra- urban scale. Several factors influence the relative level of social inequality between places. A single factor is unlikely to explain inequalities at any scale. It is the interaction of several factors which tends to lead to spatial patterns of inequality

Question 15

How can wealth vary spatially?

Answer 15

The ability to purchase goods and services is fundamental to social well-being, Everywhere, low incomes are linked to factors such as ill-health, lower educational attainment and poor access to services.
The lack of formal qualifications and low skill sets are major obstacles to raising income and thereby reducing social inequality.
The cost of living is an important consideration when discussing the role of wealth. If a person’s income rises, but increases in the cost of food, housing, clothes and fuel outstrip the additional income then that person is relatively less well-off. A key factor here is disposable income: the amount left over after the essentials of Life (food, housing clothing) have been bought.

Question 16

How can housing vary spatially?

Answer 16

Quality of accommodation is a significant influence on social inequality. The smaller the income of a household, the less choice of housing they have Poor quality housing and overcrowded conditions often create ill-health. Such inequality in access to the housing market often occurs when demand exceeds supply. In LIDCS and some EDCs, millions of people have little choice but to live in slum housing Often because of rapid urbanisation, the municipal authorities are simply overwhelmed by the scale of demand and lack the resources to increase the supply of decent housing
Homelessness is a growing problem among urban populations in many ACs. This group often exists on the margins of society and may resort to squatting illegally in derelict or empty buildings
Also in ACS the affordability of housing contributes to social inequality. When the cost of housing, either through purchase price or rent, inflates at a faster rate than wages and other prices, those with low or irregular incomes can find themselves excluded from the housing market. In the UK, traditionally low-cost social housing was provided by local authorities but since the 1980s, the availability of this type of accommodation has decreased dramatically. This is also a cause of inequality in rural regions. The rise in second-home ownership and the migration of wealthy people into the villages and small towns of the countryside have raised property prices beyond the reach of many young families.

Question 17

How can health vary spatially?

Answer 17

In all societies there is a clear link between ill health and deprivation, Sub-standard housing poor diet, unhealthy lifestyles and the additional stress of day-to-day living in poverty take their toll on human health, Access to medical services also plays a part: often, and at all scales, the distribution of health care services is uneven. Within a local area for example, some groups such as the elderly have limited mobility which restricts their access to GPS and primary health care. In rural areas where health facilities are widely dispersed, accessing medical care can be an issue for households without access to a car or public transport.

Question 18

How can education vary spatially?

Answer 18

Differing access to educational opportunities is recognised as a significant element in creating and maintaining inequalities. Achieving universal primary education was one of the Millennium Development Goals and most governments invest in education to raise standards of living and quality of life. Illiteracy excludes people from accessing education and skills training and therefore reduces employment opportunities. Accessing even basic education can be a major issue in rural regions in LIDCs.

Question 19

How can access to services vary spatially?

Answer 19

It is often the case that how accessible services are to people greatly affects both their quality of life and standard of living. It is a significant disadvantage to people if they find accessing services difficult.
At the global scale, there are stark inequalities between societies in AC’s, EDC’s and LIDC’s in terms of access to services. For example, one measure of access to medical services is the number of doctors per thousand people. According to 2018 world bank data, in 29 in Norway (AC) there are nearly three (2.9) in Brazil (EDC) there are just over two (2.2) while in Kenya (LIDC) the figure is well below one (0.2)

The picture for access to education is likewise one of clear inequality among the three categories of country.
At the national scale, most countries display inequalities between regions. People living in core regions, such as most capital cities, where wealth and investment are high, tend to have good access to services whereas the more peripheral regions, those usually furthest away from the core, suffer from limited access.

Question 20

What three factors influence access to services and how it varies spatially?

Answer 20

Access to services is influenced by three factors
- number of services
- how easy it is to get to the service, eg quantity and quality of transport links and geographical distance
- social and economic factors, eg factors such as age gender income
There is often a clear urban-rural divide in access to services. On average urban dwellers have better access to services than their rural counterparts. However, within both urban and rural locations, those with higher incomes are nearly always advantaged as regards their access to services. People living in low status housing districts, whether located in ACS, EDCs or LDCS struggle to access services such as retailing, public transport or banking
One recent service which shows distinct differences among places is access to the internet. A digital divide exists in terms both of possessing the means to be online, for example, owning equipment such as a mobile phone or laptop, as well as the quality (speed and bandwidth) of a connection. In the UK, for example, there are significant contrasts between urban-rural areas close to urban centres and remote rural areas in terms of broadband speeds Although in nearly all countries investments in broadband are growing, in general the faster speed areas tend to get faster and faster with slow speed locations lagging behind.
It is interesting how in some EDCs and LIDCS mobile phone technology is beginning to transform lives and reduce inequalities. The growth in satellite technologies removes the need to set up fixed copper cables and with solar-powered recharging equipment, even very remote places can become linked in.
One way in which social inequality can persist is in those places where the authorities restrict access to internet services. In both China and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North) Korea) internet access is severely controlled by the governments.

Question 21

What is the role of globalisation in economic change?

Answer 21

In economic terms, globalisation has led to increasing flows of ideas, capital, goods and services and people The global economy has become knitted together ways that have never happened before. Globalisation driven by economic changes across all scales from t global to the local.

Geographers identify transnational corporations and nation states as key players in the global economy Relationships among TNCs and between TNCS and states drive changes that impact the lives of billions of people

Question 22

What is one major consequence of globalisation in economic change?

Answer 22

One major consequence is global shift. This refers to the relocation of manufacturing production on a global scale. Fifty years ago most manufacturing was concentrated in western Europe and North America Raw materials such as copper and coffee were exported by countries like Zambia and Brazil, which had limited manufacturing bases of their own. From the 1980s the New International Division of Labour (NIDL) gathered pace. European, North American and Japanese TNCS created labour-intensive factories in what were called Newly Industrialising Countries (NIC), mainly East Asia and Latin America. Containerisation and Bulk handling brought down relative costs dramatically and so contributed to the locational changes

With economic restructuring came the loss of employment in the primary and secondary sectors as the comparative advantages of ACS in primary and secondary activities declined. ACs transformed into post-industrial societies in which most people worked in the tertiary and quaternary sectors.

Question 23

What is the impact of structural economic change on people and places?

Answer 23

Inevitably economic restructuring led to mine and factory closures and job losses in ACs, a process known as deindustrialisation. Some places which relied heavily on a narrow range of traditional economic activities such as mining, iron and steel making, shipbuilding or textiles were badly affected by deindustrialisation Unemployment and associated problems such as -health increased significantly and were often concentrated in inner city neighbourhoods or on local authority housing estates in the suburbs. The skills required by traditional heavy industries were not easily transferable to the growing service sector. Moreover, the physical environment of deindustrialised regions was often poor, with a legacy of abandoned and derelict buildings and polluted land and waterways. However, some places hardest hit by deindustrialisation and economic change, such as Essen in Germany, Pittsburgh in the US and Swansea in south Wales, have been rebranded and have witnessed significant regeneration.

Question 24

What is the cycle of structural economic change?

Answer 24

Establishment of large manufacturing plant–>Expansion of local job opportunities and population–> Inflow of business and capital to satisfy increased local demand- secondary and tertiary development–> Substantial rise in per capita incomes–> Higher tax base increases local government spending power–> Improvement of physical and cultural infrastructure

Question 25

What is the positives of economic change in AC's?

Answer 25

- Cheaper imports of all relatively labour-intensive products can keep cost of living down and lead to a buoyant retailing sector. - Greater efficiency apparent in surviving outlets This can release labour for higher productivity sectors (this assumes low unemployment) - Growth in LDCs may lead to a demand for exports from ACS - Promotion of labour market flexibility and efficiency, greater worker mobility to area with relative scarcities of labour should be good for the country. - Greater industrial efficiency should lead to development of new technologies, promotion of entrepreneurship and should attract foreign investment. - Loss of mining and manufacturing industries can lead to improved environmental quality.

Question 26

What are the negatives of economic change in AC's?

Answer 26

- Rising job exports leads to inevitable job losses Competition-driven changes in technology add to this - Job losses are often of unskilled workers - Big gaps develop between skilled and unskilled workers who may experience extreme redeployment differences - Employment gains from new efficiencies will only occur if industrialised countries can keep their wage demands down - Job losses are invariably concentrated in certain areas and certain industries. This can lead to deindustrialisation and structural unemployment in certain regions - Branch plants are particularly vulnerable as in times of economic recession they are the first to close, often with large numbers of job losses.

Question 27

What are the positives of economic change in EDCs and LIDC's?

Answer 27

- Higher export-generated income promotes export-led growth-thus promotes investment in productive capacity. Potentially lead to a multiplier effect on national economy - Can trickle down to local areas with many new highly paid jobs. - Can reduce negative trade balances - Can lead to exposure to new technology improvement of skills and labour productivity. - Employment growth in relatively labour-intensive manufacturing spreads wealth, and does redress global injustice (development gap)

Question 28

What are the negatives of economic change in EDCs and LIDCs?

Answer 28

Unlikely to decrease inequality-as jobs tend to be concentrated in core region of urban areas. May promote in-migration - Disruptive social impacts, eg role of TNCS potentially exploitative and may lead to sweatshops. Also branch plants may move on in UDCS too, leading to instability (eg in Philippines) - Can lead to overdependence on a narrow economic base - Can destabilise food supplies, as people give up agriculture - Environmental issue associated with over-rapid industrialisation - Health and safety issues because of tax legislation

Question 29

What impact has globalisation had in the UK?

Answer 29

During the 1970s and 1980s there was significant investment by foreign-owned TNCS in the EU and in particular the UK. Training and employment grew and a positive multiplier effect was created. Although the number of people employed in such enterprises was fewer than in the traditional industries they replaced, they represented a significant opportunity for individuals and places. Globalisation has led to greater international opportunities. Firms have specialised in areas where they have a comparative advantage. In manufacturing this has often meant specialist high-tech industries, aerospace, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology. Highly qualified workers and cutting edge research, design and development are required. Some places have built an existing high-tech reputation, such as Cambridge, while others have developed this. Bangalore in south central India, for example, has become a centre for engineering and IT development. In west Cumbria, remote rural area, the largest concentration of high tech employment in the nuclear industry in the EU is located at Sellafield.

Question 30

How do booms and recession impact people and places?

Answer 30

The economic health of a place is rarely static. Over time places grow and decline and this impacts on social opportunities and inequalities. Within countries, places often experience in different ways the effects of boom and recession. This is because different types of economic activities are not distributed evenly in space. has been claimed that the capitalist economic System operates in a series of interconnected cycles. Notably the Russian economist Kondratieff concluded that roughly 50-year cycles of growth and decline have characterised the capitalist world since 1750. These cycles of growth and stagnation have been linked with technological innovation with new industries providing the basis for a boom. Once the technology is no longer 'new', fewer opportunities for growth exist and boom is followed by recession

Question 31

How is technological innovation a part of booms and recessions?

Answer 31

Technical innovation is not evenly distributed Centres of innovation and their inhabitants often benefit from above average economic growth. Within these centres or core regions the multiplier effect is strong. The greater economic opportunities available in core regions help to explain the higher standard of living found there. It is a matter of debate as why some places are able to support technologic innovation when others do not. Explanations tend focus on the role of education, government and social organisations have in encouraging or discouraging enterprise and change. Recessions are general slowdowns in economic activity. Macroeconomic indicators such as gross domestic product (GDP), investment spending, household income, business profits and inflation fall, while bankruptcies and unemployment rise. Some people are more able to cope with a recession than others. In general, the more skilled someone is the more employment opportunities they are likely to have. Households tend to cut back on spending on non-essentials such as leisure and entertainment when there is pressure on incomes. This can result in fewer jobs in service activities such as bars and restaurants. But recessions affect people across the socio-economic spectrum.

Question 32

What are waves of innovation?

Answer 32

Is a matter of waves of innovation throughout the years. Currently we are in our 6th wave of innovation which consists of renewable energy and medical technology and drugs.

Question 33

What is a recession?

Answer 33

A recession is a period of economic decline resulting in lower GDP, higher unemployment and falling asset prices.

Question 34

What is a boom?

Answer 34

- A boom is a period of rapid economic expansion resulting in higher GDP, lower unemployment and rising asset prices.

Question 35

What is Kondratieff's theory?

Answer 35

Kondratieff's theory highlights the cyclical nature of the economic cycle, where k waves are used to show the length and wave of each. new innovation. each K wave usually lasts 40-60 years, showing the years of growth and decline since 1750 in capitalist economies. Each cycle. is connected with a new innovation which produces new industries. At the start of the cycle, new innovation sparks production and growth. from here, stock and commodity prices boom and businesses thrive. As we reach the peak of the wave, consumers reach high levels. of debt and near the end of the cycle there is falling stock prices and high unemployment. At the moment, we are in the 6th wave.

Question 36

What has happened to pace of acceleration over time?

Answer 36

Due to globalisation, we have amore interconnected economy with more global cooperations. The flow of people, money and ideas through technology allows the share of ideas, speeding up invention.

Question 37

Explain a wave of innovation

Answer 37

1. New innovation sparks production and growth 2. Stock prices boom, commodity prices boom, business thriving, loans to corporations, large inflation. 3. Consumers have massive amounts of credit, debt- unsustainable levels 4. Currency crisis, high unemployment, corporate bankruptcies, falling stock prices

Question 38

What is the pre-industrial stage of the clarke-fisher model characterised by?

Answer 38

- Raw materials - Agriculture - More reliant on primary sector

Question 39

What is the industrial stage of the clark-fisher model characterised by?

Answer 39

- Mechanisation - Rural-urban migration - Services - Urbanisation - Industrialisation - More reliant on secondary and tertiary sector - Manufacturing

Question 40

What is the post industrial stage of the clark fisher model characterised by?

Answer 40

- Deindustrialisation - Global shift - Research and development

Question 41

How has the UK's employment structure changed through industrialisation?

Answer 41

- Industrial revolution. o Great Britain. - steam engines o coal-> power - Fixed limiation on amount of power before steam engines. - New political system o limited power of monarchy. o equal rights + free flow of ideas. - George Stevenson-locomotion, 1825. o built to carry coal. - Railways interconnect nations. - Triggered fastest social revolution. o rural-urban migration. 29 cities - 1860-10,000 miles of railways in Britain. - Raw materials. - Owned 25% of world land mass. o colonies.

Question 42

How has the UK's employment structure changed through deindustrialisation?

Answer 42

- Consumption + impact of tech. - Societal changes-culture & migration. - Relationship changes. - Are not the workshop of the world. o death of manufacturing. - coal industry. o only employs a few thousand today. - 1984-miners strike *Negative impacts of mining: - old classed - health problems. - fight between old and new world. "There is no such thing as society" -> margaret thatcher. Gender divide consumerism. china now workshop of the world.

Question 43

What is the global shift?

Answer 43

* 50 years ago most manufacturing was concentrated in Western Europe and North America. Raw materials such as copper and coffee were exported by countries like Zambia and Brazil, which had limited manufacturing bases of their own. * From the 1980s the New International Division of Labour (NIDL) gathered pace. European, North American and Japanese TNCs created labour-intensive factories in what were called Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs), mainly in East Asia and Latin America. * Containerisation and bulk handling bought down relative costs dramatically and so contributed to locational changes. Powershift to the east- shift in global economy Narrow gap between E7 and G7- all top 12 economies in the world. - E7- BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China. China-largest emerging economy F7- level below E7 - Columbia, Peru, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Asia etc. Huge consumer markets- all these economies Differentiation and the new opposites in these sectors will face competition from emerging markets and economies.

Question 44

What is containerisation?

Answer 44

Containerisation, method of transporting freight by placing it in large containers. Containerisation is an important cargo-moving technique developed in the 20th century. Large and fast, container ships carry containers above deck as well as below; and their cargoes are easily loaded and unloaded, making possible more frequent trips and minimum lost time in port. Port facilities for rapid handling of containers are necessarily complex and expensive and usually justified only if there is large cargo traffic flowing both ways. A container may leave a factory by truck and be transferred to a railroad car, then to a ship, and, finally, to a barge; such transfers of an uncontainerised cargo would add substantially to cost.

Question 45

What is an example of a place that has undergone deindustrialisation?

Answer 45

Birmingham Research Park: - Birmingham has faced problems of deindustrialisation - Need a greater emphasis on knowledge economy in comparison to the primary sector - Is designed to attract research-led companies wanting to work in partnership with academic researchers.

Question 46

What is the role of governments in patterns of social inequality?

Answer 46

Governments operate at different geographical scales. There are transnational governments such as the EU, national governments such as the UK and local bodies such as county, city and parish councils. In many countries, governments play an important role in decision-making and the allocation of resources. Most governments are motivated by ideals of social justice and political cohesion and seek to reduce the extremes of poverty and inequality.

Question 47

What is their role in taxation?

Answer 47

Income tax is often used by governments to redistribute wealth from more prosperous to less prosperous groups, and so create a fairer society. Most governments have progressive tax systems where the better a larger proportion of their incomes in tax Essential items such as food may be exempt from tax. This benefits poorer groups that spend a larger percentage of their income on food.

Question 48

What is their role on subsidies?

Answer 48

Governments also try to reduce inequality by giving subsidies to poorer groups. Children in poorer families may get free school meals, clothing allowances and help with university fees. Pensioners may get subsidies for fuel and for transport Other subsidies may include free child care for single parents. Low wage earners, unemployed and those with long-term disability are entitled to benefits.

Question 49

What is their role on planning?

Answer 49

Governments, charities and housing agencies often give priority to upgrading housing and services in the poorest areas. Planning is often organised geographically and is targeted at the most deprived areas which vary in scale from neighbourhoods to entire regions.

Question 50

What is their role on law?

Answer 50

Legislation exists which outlaws discrimination on racial, ethnic, gender and age criteria and aims to give equal opportunities to all groups. The poorest groups of workers are protected by minimum-wage legislation.

Question 51

What is their role on education?

Answer 51

Governments often provide funding for training and upgrading skills in order to raise skill levels and qualification, improve employment prospects and boost economic growth Education programmes designed to impro personal health (eg diet, obesity, smoking) are often targeted at the poorest groups in society

Question 52

What is government spending at the moment?

Answer 52

In 2016 government spending in the UK was about £760 billion split approximately three-quarters by central government and one-quarter by local government.

Question 53

How do pensions add to social inequality?

Answer 53

Spending on pensions in the UK has almost doubled in recent years. This largely reflects increasing life expectancy and an ageing of the population. As a result, the age at which people can draw their state pension is rising. Some of the poorest members of society are those relying on the state pension although some are entitled to benefits. There tends to be a disproportionate number of these people living in inner cities and this contributes to high levels of multiple deprivation in these areas. It is important though to distinguish between this group and pensioners who are relatively wealthy. Large numbers of people retiring have occupational pensions which provide an additional income to the state pension. Many of the retirees also own their homes outright and have benefitted from house price inflation, which increases their wealth.

Question 54

How does health care add to social inequality?

Answer 54

Health care in many ACs is provided by a combination of government and private organisations. In the UK the National Health Service is "free at the point of delivery”. People pay for the NHS through the taxation system. However, the provision of health services varies, for example, inner cities and remote rural areas can be short of GPs and other health care workers. Others, such as affluent suburban areas, are well served. Language and cultural barriers and the role and status of women have been obstacles to recently arrived migrants accessing health care services. Within some groups such as Somali and South Asian, fears about immunisation and a lack of resistance to childhood diseases have meant that children are unprotected against common diseases such as measles and whooping cough. Literature is produced in minority ethic group languages to inform parents of the benefits of immunisation and as literacy has improved and more assimilation has taken place, overall health care has improved. There is a hierarchy in the provision of health care from the GP surgery through to specialist units treating rare diseases in large teaching hospitals. As medical care has become more technological, it has become concentrated in fewer but larger facilities. Meanwhile in rural areas and many small towns, local cottage hospitals have closed. For lower-income families and the elderly with lower levels of personal mobility, access to health services in these areas can be a problem.

Question 55

How do rural services add to social inequality?

Answer 55

For many decades a cornerstone of rural planning in the UK has been to support rural areas (especially remote ones) through the key settlement policy. Services such as education and health care, employment and housing concentrated in large villages and small towns. These places act as hubs for people living in surrounding settlements. The idea behind this policy was that if a service is supported by a critical mass of people or threshold, then it would be sustainable. However, as improvements in personal mobility have taken place many rural residents no longer rely exclusively on their nearest key settlement. They often combine trips for employment and shopping, and access a range of destinations such as the supermarkets and retail parks on the outskirts of urban places. This behaviour has been helped by the extended opening hours. The availability of home delivery services by food retailers also provides other options.

Question 56

What is the global shift?

Answer 56

The locational movement of manufacturing production in particular from ACs to EDCs and LIDCs from the 1970s onwards.

Question 57

What are global supply chains?

Answer 57

Flows of materials, products, information, services and finance in a network of suppliers, manufacturers, distributors and customers around the world.

Question 58

What is a global value chain?

Answer 58

Formed when the different stages of production are located across different countries. Companies attempt to optimise their operations by locating various stages of production across different locations.

Question 59

What are AC's?

Answer 59

Countries that share a number of important economic development characteristics, including well-developed financial markets, high degrees of financial intermediation and diversified economic structures with rapidly growing service sectors.

Question 60

What are EDC's?

Answer 60

Countries that do not share all the economic development characteristics required to be advanced, and also are not eligible for the Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust, identified by the IMF.

Question 61

What are LIDC's?

Answer 61

Countries that are eligible for financial support from the IMF through the Poverty Reduction and Growth Trust.

Question 62

What is deindustrialisation?

Answer 62

A reduction in the size or share of the manufacturing sector in the economy of a country or region often due to the out-sourcing of labour from more developed to less developed countries.

Question 63

What is economic restructuring?

Answer 63

A significant change in the employment structure often referring to the phenomenon of Western urban areas shifting from a manufacturing to a service sector economic base.

Question 64

What is the new international division of labour?

Answer 64

It is a spatial division of labour which occurs when the process of production is no longer confined to national economies. Under the "old" international division of labour, until around 1970, underdeveloped areas were incorporated into the world economy principally as suppliers of minerals and agricultural commodities.

Question 65

What defines the north of the UK?

Answer 65

- 25 million people - More land - £25,000 per year - More income support - Vote labour - Northerners are travelling south for better jobs- increasing the divide o Weakens northern economy o Brain drain from the north to the south o Working from home weakens the divide - Wealthier people in the north - Privatization (political segregation)

Question 66

What defines the south of the UK?

Answer 66

- 28 million people - Less land - £30,000 per year - All vote conservative CORE (S.E London) VS PERIPHERY (Scotland, South West)

Question 67

What is the levelling up plan to tackle social inequality?

Answer 67

- Shifts economic and social power and opportunities - 12 missions: o Increase education standards o Increase quality of life o Increase life expectancy o Decrease local authority sending by 15% o Regional public transport closer to London routes o More than £3 billion for buses o GCSE attainment gap

Question 68

How do tax and spending policies reduce poverty and social inequality?

Answer 68

- Geographical inequality - 12 point plan - Regeneration (improving brownfield land) - Branch lines reopening- nationalised- expensive to run - Government use generated incomes from tax to fund poverty organisations. - Taxes are progressive, those who earn more usually have to pay more. This helps to decrease social inequality and fund poverty schemes. - There is regressive tax is poor people have to pay income tax. This is not effective and continues to increase social inequality. - The governments primary aims is to provide services to people who cannot afford it- reduces income inequality and improves quality of life. E.g. healthcare, public transport, housing. THIS IS FOR THE UK- is not an aim of all global governments.

Question 69

What is universal credit?

Answer 69

* A working age payment for people out of work or on low income. * Is applicable when people have a: JSA (job seekers allowance), income support, employment and support allowance, child and working tax credit and housing benefits (rental). * THIS IS FOR UK- not global. * Is digitally claimed- not everyone has access to the internet and some may lack the required literacy levels to be able to understand the form that they are filling out.

Question 70

What is the importance of tax bands?

Answer 70

The tax free personal allowance is £12,570. Income tax bands are argued to reduce social inequality as government can redistribute taxes taken from the wealthiest into services/support for the poorest. If you are born poor you are likely to stay poor - Poverty cycle - Generational poverty

Question 71

Why can governments not be successful at reducing social inequality?

Answer 71

Governments can play a significant role in reducing social inequality but can also reinforce it as it varies spatially (local, national, global) and temporally (cyclical economic change). Reduction policies may not be as effective as they could be: - Health- postcode lottery- IVF rounds and superhospitals The extent to which a government can and does reduce inequality varies: - In the future- cyclical economic change- global recession - Spatially- between LIDC’s/EDC’s/AC’s.