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2016/2017 > BIOL 321 > Flashcards

BIOL 321 Flashcards

1
Q

where does the vast majority of primary production occur

A

upper 50m

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2
Q

depth of sunlight

A

200m

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3
Q

waters oxygen carrying capacity

A

2.5% of air by volume

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4
Q

oxygen movement in water

A

300,000X slower than in air

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5
Q

Reynolds number

A

Re

intertial : viscous forces

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6
Q

low Re

A

highly viscous
small fish in water
all movement requires propulsion (no gliding)

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7
Q

Linnaeus taxonomic classification scheme

A 
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
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8
Q

Taxon

A

any named group of organisms that is sufficiently distinct to be assigned to a category

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9
Q

Monophyletic

A

a group derived from a single common ancestor that contains all descendants of that ancestor

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10
Q

paraphyletic

A

group derived from a single common ancestor that does not contain all descendants of that ancestor

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11
Q

paraphyletic example

A

Invertebrates, reptiles

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12
Q

percent of described species that belong to phylum Chordata

A

5%

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13
Q

Largest extinction in history

A

P - T extinction, 250mya

95% of species-level diversity lost

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14
Q

Binomic species name

A

Generic name specific name

italicized on computer, underlined by hand

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15
Q

Abbreviating species name

A

Generic name can be abbreviated (A. species) after being spelled out once, only if there is not another genera that starts with the same letter

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16
Q

Species name with researcher who described it

A

sometimes first name is put after the species name, not underlined/italicized
Balanus amphitrite Darwin
unless described by Linnaeus then species name is followed by L.
may also be followed by date
Euphausia superba, Dana 1858

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17
Q

When a species is reclassified

A 
descriptors name is placed in brackets
Ilyanassa obsoleta (Say)
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18
Q

proposed replacement to Linnaean system

A

PhyloCode

rankless

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19
Q

domains

A

3 - higher than kingdoms
bacteria
archaea
eukarya

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20
Q

kingdoms

A 
6
Eubacteria (bacteria)
Archaebacteria (Archae)
Fungi (Eukarya)
Protista (Eukarya)
Planti (Eukarya)
Animalia (Eukarya)
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21
Q

Eukaryote

A

cells contain nuclear and membranes around organelles

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22
Q

convergence

A

independent evolution of similar features in species of different lineages
features resemble each other that are not from an LCA

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23
Q

Analogous features

A

convergence

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24
Q

Plesiomorphic

A

primitive, ancestral, original trait

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25
Q

ESTs

A

expressed sequence tags

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26
Q

Ecdysozoa

A

molting animals

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27
Q

2 protostome clades

A

Ecdysozoa

Lophotrochozoa

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28
Q

Homologous features

A

ancestral

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29
Q

Apomorphic

A

derived, advanced trait
A novel evolutionary trait that is unique to a particular species and all its descendants and which can be used as a defining character

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30
Q

direction of evolutionary change

A

polarity

evolving towards ancestral or derived character?

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31
Q

classic taxonomy

A

Evolutionary Systematics

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32
Q

Evolutionary Systematics weighting

A

characters with more phylogenetic information are given more weight

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33
Q

how Evolutionary Systematics are constructed

A

homologous characters used to deduce general relationships

resemblance taken in to account before completed

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34
Q

Evolutionary Systematics and paraphyletic groups

A

not troubled by

i.e. groups like Reptilia are ok in classic taxonomy

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35
Q

Evolutionary Systematics downfalls

A

slow
requires experience
lacks objectivity and standardized methodology

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36
Q

Phylogenetic Systematics

A

Cladistics

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37
Q

how Cladistics are constructed

A

only with synapomorphies

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38
Q

Cladistics and paraphyletic groups

A

NOT ok

all taxa must contain all descendants of an ancestor

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39
Q

Cladistic benefits

A

standardized methods and procedures
accommodates molecular data
does not require experience like Evolutionary Systematics

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40
Q

Synapomorphy

A

shared character derived from common ancestor in which it originated
evolutionary novelties

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41
Q

How to construct Cladistics with molecular data

A

start at same spot along code
compare 1 bp at a time
if b.p.’s are same = no phylogenetically useful info
1 bp difference = 1 evolutionary event

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42
Q

Problems with molecular data in Cladistics

A

deletions/insertions - sequences have to be re-aligned

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43
Q

LBA

A

long branches attract

  • rapidly evolving gene sequences produce longer branches that tend to group closely together
  • a form of systematic error whereby distantly related lineages are incorrectly inferred to be closely related
  • enough changes have occurred that lineages look similar
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44
Q

When b.p. changes are believed to have occurred too many times, erasing signs of molecular evolution

A

Saturated sequence

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45
Q

two-branched

A

biramous

as in crustacean appendages

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46
Q

subtidal

A

live below tidal line

rarely exposed to air

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47
Q

planktonic

A

mobile w/ negligible locomotion
subject to currents
drift

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48
Q

deposit feeder

A

ingest sediment, digest organic material as sediment moves through digestive tract

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49
Q

single branched

A

uniramous

insect appendages exclusively uniramous

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50
Q

ectosymbiont

A

live near or on body of other participant

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51
Q

both symbionts benefit

A

mutualism

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52
Q

one symbiont benefits while the other is neither benefited nor harmed

A

commensalism

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53
Q

term for symbiont that benefits in commensalism

A

commensal

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54
Q

Saturation

A

reduced appearance of sequence divergence that results from reverse mutations, homoplasies (convergence) and other multiple changes occurring at single sites along two lineages

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55
Q

symbiont that lives within the body of the other participant

A

endosymbiont

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56
Q

Parasitism

A

depend on host for life
obligate
may or may not improve hosts activities

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57
Q

Ancestral state

A

the character state exhibited by the ancestor from which current members of a clade have evolved

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58
Q

Apomorphy

A

any derived or specialized character

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59
Q

Autapomorphy

A

a derived character possessed by only one descendant of an ancestor, and thus of no use in discerning relationships among other descendants

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60
Q

Clade

A

a group of organisms that includes the most recent common ancestor of all its members and all descendants of that ancestor
every valid clade forms a “monophyletic” group

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61
Q

Cladogenesis

A

the splitting of a single lineage into two or more distinct lineages

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62
Q

Cladogram

A

pictorial representation of branching sequences that are characterized by particular changes in key morphological or molecular characteristics

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63
Q

Derived state

A

an altered state; modified from ancestral condition

apomorphic state

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64
Q

Homology

A

characters that have the same evolutionary origin from a common ancestor, often coded for by the same gene

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65
Q

Homology is the basis for

A

all decisions about evolutionary relationships

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66
Q

homoplasy

A

independent acquisition of similar characteristics from different ancestors

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67
Q

Monophyletic taxon

A

a group of species that evolved from a single ancestor and includes all descendants of that ancestor

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68
Q

Every valid clade

A

must form a monophyletic taxon

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69
Q

Node

A

a branching point on a cladogram

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70
Q

outgroup

A

a group of taxa outside the group being studied

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71
Q

outgroups are used to

A

‘root’ the tree and imply the direction of evolutionary change (polarity)

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72
Q

paraphyletic group

A

group of species sharing an immediate ancestor but not including all descendants of that ancestor

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73
Q

parsimony

A

a principle stating that, in the absence of other evidence, one should always accept the least complex scenario

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74
Q

pleisiomorphy

A

ancestral/primitive character

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75
Q

polarity

A

direction of evolutionary change

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76
Q

polyphyletic grouping

A

incorrect grouping containing species that descended from two or more different ancestors
members do not all share the same immediate ancestor

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77
Q

When a gene sequence loses its phylogenetic signal due to numerous base-pair substitutions

A

saturation

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78
Q

sister groups

A

two groups descended from the same immediate ancestor

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79
Q

synapomorphy

A

derived character that is shared by the LCA and two or more descendants
homologous characters that define clades

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80
Q

taxon

A

any named group of organisms

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81
Q

Invertebrate lifestyles

A

sessile
sedentary
motile

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82
Q

invertebrate habitats

A

majority marine - most hospitable
freshwater - more challenging
terrestrial - most challenging

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83
Q

challenges with freshwater habitat

A

maintaining osmotic pressure
water is often ephemeral
wider temperature fluctuations

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84
Q

challenges with terrestrial habitat

A

avoiding desiccation
retaining water
excreting toxic byproducts (urine)

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85
Q

types of benthic habitats (marine or fresh)

A

epifaunal
infernal
interstitial

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86
Q

feeding methods in invertebrates

A 
suspension feeding
detritivores
deposite feeders
herbivores
carnivores
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87
Q

Metazoan pie chart

A

invertebrates are 95% of Metazoans

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88
Q

Invertebrate pie chart

A

beetles >1/4
flies, bees/wasps, butterflies, other insects, chelicerates, crustacea, molluscs, vertebrates (~1/16), other
arthropods = ~7/8

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89
Q

pelagic habitats (marine or fresh)

A

planktonic

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90
Q

Grazing carnivores

A

exploit sessile organisms

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91
Q

Predators

A

feed on actively motile prey (as opposed to grazing)

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92
Q

scavengers

A

feed on dead organisms (carnivory)

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93
Q

types of deposit feeders

A

selective

non-selective

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94
Q

why is phylogeny important

A

essential for asking questions about evolution (must know polarity)

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95
Q

cladogram

A

diagram of a phylogenetic hypothesis

nested sets of sister clades

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96
Q

branch point

A

node

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97
Q

multicellularity evolved

A

from unicellularity multiple times uniquely (at least 7)

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98
Q

Animal multicellularity requires

A

cell adhesion
cell specialization and interdependence
embryonic differentiation

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99
Q

Importance of cell adhesion

A

all cells come from single founder cell (fertil. egg)

to become multicell. they must attach together

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100
Q

Why cell adhesion is not enough

A

some unicellular organisms attach together as well

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101
Q

Importance of cell specialization

A 
KEY to multicell.
"Division of labour"
*Intercellular signaling VIP*
organization
otherwise chaos
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102
Q

Importance of embryonic differentiation

A

allows cells to become specialized and recruited to form functional body plan
also tells about evolution

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103
Q

Tissues

A

large aggregates of same type of cell

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104
Q

Metazoan tissue types

A 
epithelial
connective
nervous
muscle
gametogenic
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105
Q

Epithelial tissue

A

likely most important
primary interface w/ outside environ.
line internal compartments - determines what goes in and out

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106
Q

Epithelia components

A 
Apical surface
flagella (not always)
Intercellular junctions
micro-villi (not always)
basal surface 
nuclei
basal lamina (not always)
apico-basal polarity
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107
Q

Apical surface

A

apical membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that faces lumen or outside environment

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108
Q

intercellular junction

A

adherons
contact between cells
enable communication
reduce stress on cell

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109
Q

basal lamina

A

layer of extracellular matrix secreted by epithelial cells, on which the epithelium sits
point of attachment
permeability barrier

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110
Q

cell polarity

A

spatial differences in the shape, structure, and function of cells

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111
Q

apical-basal polarity

A

a specialised apical membrane facing the outside of the body or lumen of internal cavities, and a specialised basolateral membrane localised at the opposite side, away from the lumen

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112
Q

Importance of apical-basal polarity

A

secrete different materials

have different structures (e.g. flagella)

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113
Q

connective tissue

A 
collagen
cells not connected in extracellular matrix
'wander around'
structural integrity 
(e.g. blood, bone)
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114
Q

Nervous tissue

A

specialized to transmit information
neurons have high density and diversity
allow message transmission throughout organism

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115
Q

how nervous tissue works

A

change in potential through the ion channels is carried down the length of the neuron

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116
Q

muscle tissue

A

specialized for shortening

important for animal movement

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117
Q

how muscle tissue works

A

actin and myosin slide relative to each other

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118
Q

Major groups of metazoans

A 
Porifera
Cnidaria
Ctenophora
Placozoa
Bilateria
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119
Q

Porifera and Placozoa shared characteristic

A

no nerves

no muscles

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120
Q

Metazoan phylogeny hypotheses

A
  1. Porifera, (Placozoa, Cnidaria, (Bilateria, Ctenophora))

2. Ctenophora, (Porifera, (Placozoa, (Bilateria, Cnidaria)))

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121
Q

Problem with metazoan hypothesis 1

A

It has a trichotomy

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122
Q

trichotomy

A

3 sister groups following 1 node

perfectly/fully resolved phylogenies only have 2 sister groups

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123
Q

problem with metazoan hypothesis 2

A 
just controversial
new data (molecular)
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124
Q

Porifera habitat

A

marine and freshwater

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125
Q

Porifera lifestyle

A

sessile adults

suspension feeders - mostly bacteria, some plankton

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126
Q

aquiferous system

A

interconnected system of water canals

unique to sponges

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127
Q

do sponges have tissues

A

yes

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128
Q

what tissues do sponges have

A

nerve/muscle - no
connective tissue - yes
epithelial tissue - yes

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129
Q

name of sponge epithelial tissue

A

protoepithelia

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130
Q

Protoepithelial tissue

A

less differentiated than other metazoans

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131
Q

Sponge interior compartment

A

spongocoel
atrium
empty space

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132
Q

sponge species

A

8000

98% marine

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133
Q

non-self recognition

A

alloincompatibility

as in sponges

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134
Q

flagellated cells lining spongeocoel

A

choanocytes
‘funnel cells’
collar cells
form choanoderm

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135
Q

collar cell functions

A

generate curent to maintain circulation in/through sponge
capture food particles
capture sperm

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136
Q

choanoderm

A

interior sponge tissue - facing spongocoel

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137
Q

collar of collar cells

A

apical flagellum surrounded by microvilli

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138
Q

middle sponge layer

A

mesohyl

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139
Q

wandering cells in mesohyl

A

archaeocytes

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140
Q

Mesohyl

A

gelatinous
non-living
acellular but containing live cells

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141
Q

Archaeocyte features

A 
amorphous
amoeboid
wander in mesohyl - cytoplasmic streaming 
essential functions
develop into specialized cells
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142
Q

Archaeocyte functions

A 
digest food particles from choanocytes
store digested food
role in non-self recognition
may produce flagellated sperm and egg
role in waste elimination
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143
Q

Sponge Support Elements

A

spicules

fibers

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144
Q

Spicule structure

A

siliceous

calcareous

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145
Q

fiber structure

A

spongin (collagen-like)

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146
Q

secrete spongin fibers

A

spongocytes

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147
Q

secrete spicules

A

sclerocytes

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148
Q

spongocytes and sclerocytes come from what types of cells

A

archeaocytes

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149
Q

sponge water entry

A

ostium

porocyte

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150
Q

sponge water exit

A

osculum

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151
Q

support element functions

A

maintain sponge shape
discourage predation
systematics (systematics)

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152
Q

dormant sponge structure

A

gemmule

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153
Q

gemmule features

A

dormant structure
certain times of yr
mostly freshwater, especially temperate latitudes
resistant to desiccation, freezing, anoxia
withstand unfavourable conditions
asexual reproduction - multiple clones

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154
Q

formation of gemmule

A

archaeocytes phagocytize other cells to accumulate nutrients - cluster together w/i sponge - surrounding cells secrete thick protective covering capsule - parent sponge dies - gemmules released in to water - enter metabolic arrest - survive - break open and release cells in favourable conditions

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155
Q

Vernalization

A

many gemmules must spend several months at low T before capable of hatching

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156
Q

cells in outer sponge layer

A

Pinacocytes

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157
Q

Pinacocyte features

A

flattened contractile cells
form pinacoderm layer
line incurrent canals

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158
Q

Pinacocyte contraction

A

major/minor sponge shape change

regulate flow by changing incurrent opening size

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159
Q

levels of sponge construction

A

basic –> complex

asconoid, syconoid, leuconoid

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160
Q

Increased sponge complexity achieved by

A

increasing invagination of choanocyte layer away from spongocoel
increased flagellated surface area

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161
Q

Majority of sponge types (complexity)

A

leuconoid

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162
Q

sponge Classes

A

Calcarea
Demospongiae
Hexactinellida
Homoscleromorpha

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163
Q

How sponge Classes are defined

A

chemical composition

support element morphology

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164
Q

Class Calcarea characteristics

A 
CaCO3 spicules
only class to include all 3 complexities
only class w/ extant asconoids
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165
Q

Class Demospongiae characteristics

A 
largest class
≥80% of all species
mostly leuconoid
spicules/fibers = spongin and/or silica, some chitin
NO CaCO3 
only class w/ freshwater species
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166
Q

Family Cladorhizidae

A 
Demospongiae
carnivorous
most lack ostia, oscula, choanocytes
engulf prey in epithelial cell and new filaments
may have symbiotic bacteria
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167
Q

Class Hexactinellida features

A

“Glass Sponges”
syconoid or leuconoid
entire sponge is syncytial
interconnected 6-ray spicules of Si and Chitin

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168
Q

Syncytial

A

multinucleate mass

not separated in to cells

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169
Q

Type of reproduction in sponges

A

asexual- fragmentation or gemmules/buds

sexual- sperm and eggs

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170
Q

Gamete producer in sponges

A

many species are hermaphroditic so individuals produce both gametes

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171
Q

Sponge sexual reproduction

A

choanocyte- sperm capture- dedifferentiate to amoeboid form- move sperm to mesohyl- egg fertilized in mesohyl

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172
Q

Phylum Placozoa defining characteristics

A

small, multicellular, amorphous, mobile
no body cavity, digestive system, nervous system
2 layers of ciliated epithelium sandwiching multinucleate contractile cells

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173
Q

cells in a Placozoa

A

~1000 per layer

~3000

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174
Q

Phylum Placozoa species

A

only 1 described, poorly understood
Trichoplax adherents
molecular work suggests ~10 unknown

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175
Q

Placozoa size

A

~2mm in lab

much smaller in field

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176
Q

Placozoa genome

A

smallest of any known animal

98 million b.p.’s

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177
Q

Placozoa habitat

A

unknown

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178
Q

Placozoa cells

A

no basal lamina
ventral layer = columnar cells w/ flagella
glandular cells secrete digestive enzyme for extracellular digestion
upper layer contains ‘shiny spheres’ for defense
dissagregated cells can reform fn animal
regenerate pieces that are cut off

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179
Q

Placozoa reproduction

A

asexual - budding, fragmentation
binary fission
possibly sexual

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180
Q

Placozoa mitochondrial genome

A

largest known
43,079 b.p.’s
more closely related to unicellular organisms?
basal group or secondary loss?

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181
Q

Choanoflagellate

A 
unicellular heterotrophs
collared, flagellated
look like individual choanocytes
but also form colonies
possibly evolved in to sponges?
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182
Q

Sponge asexual reproduction

A

fragmentation

gemmules

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183
Q

sponge fragmentation

A

bit of sponge body separates, piece of somatic tissue grows in to new organism

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184
Q

sponge sex

A

mostly hermaphroditic (not simultaneously), can switch sex in next spawning season

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185
Q

sponge sperm

A

differentiate from choanocytes or archaeocytes

broadcast spawn in to surrounding sea water through osculum

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186
Q

sponge eggs

A

differentiate from archaeocytes in mesohyl

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187
Q

sponge larvae

A

released from osculum
flagellated, swimming
allows for dispersal
looks like an olive with short little hairs at end

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188
Q

diapause

A

period of suspended development, especially during unfavorable environmental conditions (e.g. gemmule)

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189
Q

Cladorhizidae spicules

A

hook-shaped spicules on tendrils

act like velcro, hook on to exoskeleton of prey

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190
Q

new species of deep ocean carnivorous sponge

A

Chondrocladia

‘harp sponge’

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191
Q

Late Jurassic time

A

145 MYA

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192
Q

sponges in Jurassic

A

siliceous sponge reef belt (hexactinellida), 7000km, anywhere on planet, between NA/Baltica and Gondwana, extinct at end of Jurassic

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193
Q

how do sponges persist as sessile organisms

A
  • secondary metabolites

- intracellular bacterial symbionts synthesizing secondary metabolites

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194
Q

secondary metabolites

A

defence

may be: unpalatable, toxic, antibacterial

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195
Q

BC sponges

A

Hexactinellid reefs formed by 3 species of glass sponge (not same species as from Jurassic)
discovered in 2005
unique to BC, nowhere else

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196
Q

sponge internal communication

A

allow ions into membrane - potential difference - message propagated through whole body - can create whole body response to external disturbance

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197
Q

how can a sponge propagate a message through its whole body

A

one cell at a time
open and close.. neighbour opens and close.. neighbour..
close all cells - stop flow of water in response to environmental disturbance

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198
Q

How Professor George Mackie was able to test membrane potential in sponges

A

cut up, disagregated cells, they reformed a fleshy clump, put clump on parent sponge, tissue formed around = tumor/graft which an electrode could be attached to

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199
Q

skeleton

A

solid or fluid system permitting muscles to be stretched back to their original length following a contraction
may be protective, supportive as well

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200
Q

why is a skeleton necessary

A

muscles can’t do repetitious movement alone

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201
Q

muscles can

A

shorten/relax

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202
Q

muscles can not

A

actively extend themselves

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203
Q

how muscles work

A

antagonize each other
work opposite to each other
e.g. bicep, tricep

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204
Q

aquatic animal skeleton

A

many use fluid for muscle interaction

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205
Q

why aquatic animals can use liquid skeletons

A

don’t need extra structure/support like terrestrial organisms (gravity, lack of buoyancy)

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206
Q

hydrostatic skeleton requirements

A

cavity w/ incompressible fluid
cavity surrounded by flexible outer membrane (deformable)
constant fluid volume
deformable covering or antagonistic muscles

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207
Q

why incompressible fluid is important for a hydrostatic skeleton

A

to transit pressure changes in all directions

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208
Q

additional hydrostatic skeleton requirement if progressive locomotion is to occur

A

animal must be able to form temporary attachment to substrate

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209
Q

cnidaria defining characteristic

A

secretion of complex intracellular organelles called cnidae; planula larvae

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210
Q

Cnidaria habitats

A

aquatic - marine and freshwater

by far greatest diversity in ocean

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211
Q

Cnidaria marine habitats

A

benthic and/or pelagic

most cycle between both, some spend whole life in one or other

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212
Q

Cnidaria lifestyle

A

solitary and/or colonial
sessile/sedentary and/or mobile
predatory (some contain photosynthetic symbionts)

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213
Q

Cnidarian species

A

> 11,000

>99% marine

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214
Q

cnidaria body plans

A 
medusa
polyp
some have both as stages
some have both at once
some are only one stage
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215
Q

Cnidaria major characteristics

A

true gut (carnivore)
diploblastic
radial symmetry (all life history stages)
nerve net
cnidocytes
alternation of generations (many, not all)

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216
Q

cnidaria tissue layers

A

epidermis
gastrodermis
diploblastic

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217
Q

cnidaria gelatinous layer

A

mesoglea

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218
Q

mesoglea

A

gelatinous
nonliving
may contain living cells from embryonic ectoderm

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219
Q

diploblastic early development

A

zygote cleavage - 8-cell stage - cleavage - blastula - gastrulation - becomes 2 layers of cells

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220
Q

blastula

A

hollow ball of cells

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221
Q

gastrulation

A

invagination

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222
Q

gastrula

A 
2 layers of cells
after gastrulation (endoderm and ectoderm)
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223
Q

space between 2 layers of gastrula cells

A

blastocoel

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224
Q

opening in gastrula

A

blastopore

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225
Q

Cnidarian blastopore

A

becomes mouth

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226
Q

cavity inside of gastrula (inside ectoderm)

A

Archenteron

future gut

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227
Q

why is radial symmetry appropriate for sessile/sedentary organisms

A

not moving w/ a leading end

sitting still- predators/prey can approach from all sides

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228
Q

Cnidaria epidermis cell types

A 
epitheliomuscle cells
nerve cells
cnidocytes
gland cells
interstitial cells
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229
Q

epitheliomuscle cells

A 
in epidermis of cnidarian
apical side = bona fide epithelial 
basal side = muscles w/ actin/myosin 
sensory cells 
intra-epithelial neurons
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230
Q

apical surface

A

facing lumen or external environment

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231
Q

cnidarian sensory cells

A

neurons in epitheliomuscle cells reach up to apical surface

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232
Q

cnidarian intra-epithelial neurons

A

neurons in epitheliomuscle cells are embedded in epithelium (in other Metazoans, below epithelium)

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233
Q

basal surface

A

bottom edge of the cell or tissue adjacent to the basement membrane

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234
Q

Cnidarian nerves are arranged

A

in a nerve net

appropriate for radial organism transmit stimuli out concentrically to all body parts

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235
Q

choanocyte functions (Porifera)

A

maintain water flow
capture and ingest particles
capture sperm
transform in to sperm (some species)

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236
Q

why choanocytes must maintain water flow

A

bring in food particles, gases, remove waste products (uric acid, CO2)

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237
Q

how choanocytes capture particles

A

caught on sticky mesh between microvilli

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238
Q

choanocyte food digestion

A

intracellular

often initial digestion then transfer to archeocytes

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239
Q

archaeocyte functions

A

primarily responsible for food digestion
store nutrients
transform in to gametes
synthesize skeletal elements

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240
Q

pluripotent cells

A

very capable of differentiating in to different cell types (e.g. archaeocytes)

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241
Q

basic cnidarian body parts

A 
mouth (between tentacles)
tentacles
GVC
body stalk
basal disk
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242
Q

cnidocytes

A 
synthesize cnidae (e.g. nematocysts)
nettle/stinging thread 
organelle secreted in cnidoblast
discharge explosively
variety of functions 
one of most complex intracellular secretion products known
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243
Q

types of nematocysts

A 
>30 described types
many types in one individual
main groups
1. glutinants
2. volvent 
3. penetrant
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244
Q

glutinant nematocysts

A

tubule has open end containing adhesive material

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245
Q

volvent nematocysts

A

threads that wrap around and capture prey

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246
Q

penetrant nematocysts

A

penetrate through exoskeleton

tubule has open end with neurotoxins

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247
Q

how nematocysts work

A 
Ca+ moves in to capsule
increased molality
water drawn in to capsule
pressure increase
pressure discharges capsule
capsule turns inside out
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248
Q

nematocyst structure

A 
round, proteinaceous capsule, open at one end
hinged operculum
cnidocil by opening (trigger)
hollow, coiled tube in capsule (thread)
may contain barbs
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249
Q

cnidocyte functions

A

food capture
defense
temporary adhesion to substrate

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250
Q

why barbs don’t poke in to capsule of cnidocyte

A

they point in

cnidae is turned inside out when ejected

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251
Q

how symbionts avoid stinging from cnidae

A

secrete mucus that prevents nematocyst from firing

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252
Q

discharged nematocyst

A 
cnidocyte
nematocyst capsule
barbs
thread (tubule)
sloughed off - not reusable 
regenerated from interstitial cells (stem cells)
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253
Q

cnidocyte discharge by

A

chemical and tactile stimulation

perceived through cnidocil

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254
Q

cnidocil

A

cluster of modified cilia

hairlike sensory process

255
Q

Cnidaria gastrodermis cell types

A

nutritive muscle cells
enzymatic gland cells
some cnidarians also have cnidocytes and nerve cells in gastrodermis

256
Q

medusa vs. polyp mesoglea

A

mesoglea much more hydrated in medusa - thick and jelly-like

257
Q

Cnidarian phylogeny (Classes)

A 
Anthozoa s.g. to
Staurozoa s.g. to
Hydrozoa s.g. to
Scyphozoa s.g. to
Cubozoa
258
Q

Subphylum Medusozoa

A

Staurozoa, Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa, Cubozoa

259
Q

Cnidarian classes that have polyp and medusa stage

A

Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa, Cubozoa

260
Q

Subphylum Anthozoa includes

A

anemones, corals, sea pens

used to be called Class

261
Q

another name for epitheliomuscular cells

A

nutritive cells

262
Q

implication of Cnidaria having only mouth

A

only one opening
no anus
must expel undigested remains of one meal before consuming more

263
Q

why is the taxonomy we use most parsimonious

A

1 evolutionary change (acquiring medusa stage) as opposed to 2 changes (loss of medusa in Anth. and 1/2 loss in Staur.)

264
Q

hydrostatic skeleton functions

A

maintain shape
transmit force of muscle contraction (to produce movement)
protection

265
Q

cnidaria muscles important for hydrostatic skeleton

A

circular and longitudinal

266
Q

Class Anthozoa characteristics

A

absence of medusa, operculum, cnidocil
circular mitochondrial DNA, ciliated groove in pharyngeal wall, coelenteron partitioned by sheets of tissue
all marine

267
Q

cnidaria respiratory system

A

no respiratory structures

268
Q

Anthozoa species

A

~6000

70% of Cnidarians

269
Q

Sea anemone inflation

A

open mouth, contract longitudinal muscles, expel all water (of h.s. skeleton), results in chewed bubblegum form

270
Q

sea anemone inflation

A

ciliated siphonoglyphs draw in water, slowly stretches back out - hours - days
mesoglea responds like silly putty - stretches back out slowly

271
Q

Anthozoa reproduction

A

Asexual - vision, budding, pedal laceration

Sexual

272
Q

Anthozoa fision

A

break body in to 2 parts (transverse or longitudinal plane) - reform rest of organism

273
Q

Anthozoa budding

A

somatic tissue extends in to a bud that differentiates tentacles and other body parts, then separates

274
Q

Anthozoa pedal laceration

A

common in anemones

bleb/pinch off part of foot (oral disk) that regrows its parts (form of fragmentation)

275
Q

Anthozoa sexual reproduction characteristics

A 
dioecious
gametes arts from gastrodermis
broadcast spawn gametes
fertilization external or internal
free-swimming planula larvae
276
Q

dioecious

A

separate males and females

277
Q

Anthozoa subclasses

A

Hexacorallia (Zoantharia)

Octacorallia (Alcyonaria)

278
Q

Hexacorallia

A

sea anemones- solitary
stony corals - colonial, solitary
tentacles around mouth in multiples of 6

279
Q

mesentaries

A

sheets in Anthozoa GVC to increase SA

280
Q

Hexacorallia parts

A

6 pairs of 1º mesenteries
1 pair siphonoglyphs
stony corals have CaCO3 skeleton

281
Q

Hexacorallia corals

A

scleractinian

hermatypic or ahermatypic

282
Q

reef-building corals

A

hermatypic

283
Q

Class Octocorallia

A 
sea pens, sea fan, sea whip, soft corals - pipe coral  
all colonial
have central axis 
8n tentacles, septa 
pinnate tentacles
284
Q

colonial Hexacorallia

A

polyps connected via GV - all tissue layers are continuos in a tunnel, GVC is continuous
polyps on top of CaCO3

285
Q

pinnate tentacles

A

numerous lateral outfoldings (pinnules) along tentacles

side branches

286
Q

colonial Octocorallia

A

interconnections lined by gastrodermis
polyps are not full individuals - embedded thick matrix mesoglea (soft coral)
CaCO3 spicules in mesoglea
may have proteinaceous axial skeleton

287
Q

Anthozoa larvae unique

A

only Cnidarian planula larvae that feed

288
Q

Anthozoa feeding

A

primarily carnivorous

transfer food - mouth - tubular pharynx (don’t directly to GVC)

289
Q

siphonoglyphs

A

ciliated grooves from mouth down pharynx

290
Q

Tropical coral reefs

A

very high biodiversity and biomass
very clear water needed - nutrient poor
unicellular photosynthetic organisms

291
Q

photosynthetic symbionts (corals)

A

zooxanthellae - dinoflagellates

zoochlorellae - chlorophytes

292
Q

reef building corals

A

hermatypic

293
Q

chlorophytes

A

green algae

294
Q

when zooxanthellae/zoochlorellae ‘overproduce’

A

corals release products as mucus which is used by other organisms

295
Q

photosynthetic unicells reside where in Cnidarian

A

within gastrodermal cells of host (intracellular symbiont)

296
Q

what do photosynthetic unicells provide Cnidarians

A

nutrition

sunscreen molecules

297
Q

Anemone territory defence

A 
inflate acrorhagi (fighting tentacles) - normally can't be seen 
have very potent nematocysts
298
Q

cold water coral groups

A 
forests of Octocorallia
reefs of Hexacorallia
no photosynthetic symbionts
very deep 
increase niche space
299
Q

anthozoa surfaces

A 
oral surface (tentacle end)
aboral surface (basal disk end)
300
Q

Anthozoa mouth

A

shaped like a barbell (bilaterally symmetric)

bells lined with siphonoglyphs

301
Q

mouth in Anthozoa leads to

A

gullet (esophagus)

302
Q

medusae swimming

A

contract circular muscles - expel water (jet propulsion)

no antagonistic muscles - bell ‘springs back’ and re-expands to original shape

303
Q

why there are receptors in medusa not polyp

A

motile - must monitor surroundings more carefully

304
Q

polyp vs medusa, GVC

A

polyp - simple sac

medusa - interconnected canals

305
Q

polyp vs medusa, reproduction

A

In cnidarians w/ alternation of generations
polyp - asexual
medusa - sexual

306
Q

Class Hydrozoa characteristics

A 
alt. of gen.
greater representation of polyp stage
mesoglea lacks cells 
>3000 species
mostly marine 
gastrodermis lacks nematocysts 
2 subclasses
307
Q

medusa body parts

A 
mouth - manubrium - stomach
bell
mesoglea
radial canal
ring canal 
tentacles 
circular muscles
308
Q

ring canal

A

around periphery of bell

309
Q

radial canals

A

out from stomach to edge of bell (4)

310
Q

manubrium

A

muscular cylinder at one end

311
Q

medusa surfaces

A

exumbrellar surface - ‘top’

subumbrella surface - ‘underneath’, mouth side

312
Q

Subclass Hydromedusa (Hydrozoa)

A 
mostly marine
freshwater e.g. Hydra
thick mesoglea
posses velum 
gonads develop from epidermis
313
Q

velum

A

muscular shelf of tissue

goes in towards mouth from edge of medusa

314
Q

velum function

A

increases speed and agility
restricts aperture - increase water velocity
can open to the side for turning

315
Q

Hydrozoa polyps

A

majority colonial (modular)
interconnected, continuous GVC
polymorphism
perisarc

316
Q

colonial polyps with specialized polyp types

A

polymorphism (Hydrozoa)
feeding, reproducing
(can also have 3rd type of polyp, defensive)

317
Q

perisarc

A

non-living chitinous protective coating around polyps (Hydrozoa)

318
Q

Hydrozoan reproductive polyp produces

A

medusa

319
Q

hydroids

A

colonial Hydrozoans that form branching colonies
often have protective coating
e.g. ostrich plume

320
Q

Hydra

A

freshwater
separate, distinct polyps
may contain zoochlorella
lack medusa

321
Q

Order Siphonophores

A 
Hydrozoans
complex colony 
pelagic, free floating
polymorphic polyps + polymorphic medusa 
very toxic 
clustered modules along stem
322
Q

Siphonophore example

A

Portuguese man-of-war

323
Q

Siphonophore body parts

A 
float (gas filled)
swimming bells
stem
feeding polyps
tentacles
reproductive medusa buds
324
Q

swimming bells, siphonophores

A

modified medusa
don’t produce gametes
jet propulsion

325
Q

Siphonophore genetics

A

all genetically identical
express different parts of genome
very novel way of achieving complexity

326
Q

Class Scyphozoa

A
327
Q

local Scyphozoa

A

Aurelia sp. - moon jelly

328
Q

gastric pouches

A

have gastrodermis derived gonads (like Anthozoa)

329
Q

rhopalium

A

8 around margin of bell

complex set of photoreceptors, gravity receptors, chemo-, mechano-

330
Q

Hydrozoa gonads

A

arise from epidermis

331
Q

Scyphozoan life cycle

A

adult medusa – eggs + sperm – fertilized egg – planula larva – scyphistoma polyp – strobila – ephyra – medusae

332
Q

Scyphozoan reproduction

A

strobilation

transverse fission of strobila to form multiple ephyra

333
Q

Scyphozoan budding

A

budding may occur during scyphistoma stage

334
Q

Scyphistoma

A

polyp with tentacles
body form that grows from larva
may bud

335
Q

ephyra

A

‘baby medusa’
produced from strobila
genetically identical (from same strobila)

336
Q

Class Staurozoa

A 
least known
medusa + polyp
stalked on aboral end
modified tentacles around periphery - anchors
adhesive structures 
small, most
337
Q

Staurazoa life cycle

A

no swimming stage
no free medusa
gametes released in seawater
planulae not ciliated (creep)

338
Q

5 major clades of metazoan

A 
Porifera
Cnidaria
Ctenophora
Placozoa
Bilateria
339
Q

Phylum Placozoa only described species

A

Trichoplax adherens

340
Q

Trichoplax adherens

A 
1883, FE Schulz
smalles metazoan genome
intertidal, warm, marine
very small
amoeba-like
341
Q

Placozoa body features

A 
ciliated epithelium
contractile cells btw epithelium
no nerve cells
no basal lamina
possible chemical defense cells 
enzyme-secreting cells 
bona fide intracellular junctions
342
Q

Placozoa movement

A

move via cilia and contractions

343
Q

Placozoa feeding

A

move over food particle
transient space around particle
secrete digestive enzymes
digest externally

344
Q

Placozoa reproduction

A

asexual - binary fission, budding

sexual suspected but not observed

345
Q

earliest Bilateria fossils

A

trace
~Precambrian-Cambrian boundary
evidence of active burrowing?

346
Q

Bilateral symmetry associated with

A

actively motile lifestyle

leading end of body

347
Q

Bilaterian characteristics

A

two body axes
triploblastic
How genes

348
Q

Bilaterian axes

A

anterior-posterior (A-P)

dorsal-ventral (D-V)

349
Q

Bilateria dermal layers

A

ectoderm
endoderm
mesoderm

350
Q

Hox genes

A

encode positional identity along A-P axis

351
Q

Functions of Bilateria internal compartments

A 
digestion
transport nutrients  and gases
hydrostatic skeleton
source/storage of gametes
role in excretion and osmoregulation
352
Q

why Bilateria have internal compartments

A

must provide nutrients to all the different body parts - especially important in large animals
internal compartments allow for specialization of function (unlike GVC in Cnidaria)

353
Q

Types of secondary body compartments in Bilateria

A

acoelomate
pseudocoelomate
eucoelomate

354
Q

Acoelomate

A

mesoderm completely fills area between ectoderm/endoderm

may contain various compartments

355
Q

Bilateria ‘Superphyla’

A

Lophotrochozoa
Ecdysozoa
Deuterostomia

356
Q

Pseudocoelomate

A

mesoderm only along inside edge of ectoderm - doesn’t fill entire body compartment
e.g. nematodes

357
Q

Eucoelomate

A

epithelium from mesoderm forms separate compartments L/R
control what goes on in body by apical-basal polarity
compartments can specialize

358
Q

epithelium from mesoderm

A

mesothelium

359
Q

compartments formed by mesothelium in eucoelomate

A

eucoelom/coelom

360
Q

compartment in pseudocoelomate

A

pseudocoel

361
Q

concentration of sensor organs at leading end of body

A

cephalization

362
Q

cephalization =

A

formation of A-P axis

363
Q

how were taxonomic trees ordered in 1940s

A

morphology

embryonic development

364
Q

L. Hyman, 1940 Bilateria tree

A

Platyhelminthes - Nematoda - (eucoelomate divergence) - two branches
Deuterostomia (Echinodermata, Hemichordata, Chordata)
Protostomia (Mollusca, Arthropods, Annelida)

365
Q

Deuterostomia vs Protostomia, cleavage

A

D - radial

P - spiral

366
Q

Deuterostomia vs Protostomia, mesoderm origin

A

D - endoderm

P - mesentoblast

367
Q

Deuterostomia vs Protostomia, eucoelom origin

A

D - enterocoely

P - schizocoely

368
Q

Deuterostomia vs Protostomia, blastopore fate

A

D - anus

P - variable (rarely just anus)

369
Q

germ layer

A

group of cells that behave as a unit during early stage of embryonic development
give rise to distinctly diff. tissues and/or organ systems

370
Q

key mesoderm derivatives

A

muscles

circulatory systems

371
Q

deuterostome formation

A

enterocoely = evagination of endoderm - club shape - coelomic pouches pinch off - coelomic vesicles

372
Q

Protostome formation

A

schizocoely =

mesentoblasts - gradual enlargement and arrangement into compartments

373
Q

mesentoblasts

A

cluster of cells in protostome

374
Q

Radial cleavage

A

cleavage planes parallel and perpendicular to cell axis

daughter cells lie in same plane as mother cells

375
Q

serial cleavage

A

spindle axes 45º

at 8-cell stage top cells are smaller

376
Q

Bilateria tree based on molecular studies comparing nucleotide sequences of rDNA

A

Protostomia - Lophotrochozoa, Ecdysozoa

Deuterostomia - Echinodermata, Hemichordata, Chordata

377
Q

Superphylum Lophotrochozoa, Phylums

A

Annelida
Mollusca
Platyhelminthes
(+ others)

378
Q

Superphylum Ecdysozoa, Phylums

A

Arthropoda
Nematoda
(+ others)
interesting nematodes closer to arthropods than annelids

379
Q

Ecdysozoa characteristics

A

cuticle (exoskeleton) periodically moulted to allow growth

no motile cilia/flagella

380
Q

Ecdysozoa sperm

A

have flagella-like feature but not motile

NO motile cilia/flagella

381
Q

colinearity

A

organization of Hox genes in chromosome = order of their expression along AP axis of developing animal

382
Q

Hox genes encode

A 
transcription factors (proteins) 
Tc factors bind to DNA and restrict downstream gene expression
383
Q

Hox gene groups

A

4 main groups that are similar enough to have originated from single ancestral gene
4 groups unique to Bilateria

384
Q

Radiata Hox genes

A

2 groups

385
Q

Earth age

A

> 4.5by

386
Q

described species

A

~1.7 million

387
Q

undescribed species

A

probably 10 million

388
Q

earliest known unicellular eukaryotes

A

~2by

389
Q

earliest known Metazoans

A 
542-635my 
Ediacaran fauna
South Australia
burrow fossils
no hard parts
390
Q

best studied invertebrate fossils

A

Burgess Shale
BC
525 my

391
Q

Phylum Platyhelminthes

A

Lophotrochozoa
flatworms
free-living freshwater/marine/terrestrial, parasitic

392
Q

free-living terrestrial flatworms

A

confined to very humid environments

393
Q

parasitic platyhelminths

A

e.g. tapeworm

75% of phylum are parasitic

394
Q

Phylum Platyhelminthes general characteristics

A 
bilateral symmetry
triploblastic
cephalization
aceolomate
gut with one opening (GVC)
dorso-ventrally flattened
cerebral ganglia, long nerve cords
prtonephridia
hermaphroditic, complex reproductive system
395
Q

Class Turbellaria

A

free-living flatworms
not true clade
paraphyletic

396
Q

Platyhelminth gut

A

gut circulates nutrients and gases so it is appropriate to call it GVC

397
Q

Platyhelminth dorso-ventral flattening

A

no internal tubules for circulatory/gas exchange
gases don’t have to travel as far
gas exchange is affected by SA:V ratio

398
Q

Turbellaria body plan

A

bilaterally symmetric
auricle - ear-like chemosensory structures
eyes - photoreceptors

399
Q

Turbellaria eyes

A

can not form images

detect shadows

400
Q

Turbellaria mouth

A

mid way down ventral surface

leads to muscular pharynx

401
Q

Turbellaria pharynx

A

can sometimes be extended out of body for feeding

402
Q

Turbellaria feeding

A

mostly predators or scavengers

  • secrete digestive enzymes
  • swallow prey whole
  • terrestrial flatworms have unique feeding
403
Q

Turbellaria enzyme digestion

A

enzymes digested by pharyngeal glands
begin digestion outside body
suck-up semi-digested soup

404
Q

Terrestrial flatworm feeding

A

grasp prey w/ adhesive secretion
ensnare prey in sticky mucus
neurotoxins

405
Q

tetrodotoxin

A

binds to Na channels

blocks action potentials

406
Q

Turbellaria GVC

A

not a simple sac

series of interconnected side branches

407
Q

Turbellaria locomotion

A

ciliary-mucus crawling
muscular crawling
body undulations for swimming
duoglands

408
Q

ciliary-mucus crawling, Turbellaria

A

secrete mucus layer, beat cilia, swim over secretion

409
Q

Turbellaria duogland

A

viscid gland (adhesive) + releasing gland, inside of supporting cell

410
Q

Helps turbellarians with muscular crawling and body undulations

A

parenchyma cells

411
Q

Parenchyma cells

A

full of water at constant volume

can act as hydrostatic skeleton

412
Q

ganglia

A

concentration of neurons

413
Q

Turbellarian nervous system

A

cerebral ganglia
2 longitudinal nerve cords
Peripheral nerve plexus

414
Q

Protonephridia

A

hollow cell in excretory system containing a tuft of rapidly beating cilia that serve to propel waste products into excretory tubules

415
Q

Protonephridial functions

A

osmoregulation (maintain salt, water balance)

excretion of ammonia (waste product of protein catabolism)

416
Q

Protonephridium structure

A

invagination in epithelium = duct
end of duct = terminal cell
basal lamina around duct + terminal cell
flagela in middle of terminal cell go down duct

417
Q

flame bulb

A

name for terminal cell b/c flagella are beating so much it looks like its flickering

418
Q

function of flagella in protonephridial function

A

beating of flagella expels water down duct
(-) pressure
draw interstitial fluid into terminal cell through cytoplasmic processes

419
Q

function of basal lamina in protonephridial function

A

size selector - ultrafiltration

otherwise everything would leave

420
Q

Selective reabsorption

A

particles that are accidentally lost through terminal cell can be re-absorbed through duct

421
Q

Waste in the protonephridium is released through the

A

nephridiopore

422
Q

Turbellaria reproduction

A

Asexual

Sexual

423
Q

Asexual reproduction, Turbellaria

A

transverse fission plane
divide body in half - regenerate missing half
common in free-living flatworms

424
Q

Sexual reproduction, Turbellaria

A

hermaphroditic
internal fertilization
comple m/f reproductive systems

425
Q

Turbellaria male reproductive system

A

a series of testis - sperm moves down to sperm duct - moved in to seminal vesicle (stored until copulation) - penis - male gonopore (genital pore)

426
Q

Turbellaria female reproductive system

A

ovary (1 or more pairs) – oviduct – yolk glands – female gonopore – copulatory bursa (sperm storage)

427
Q

Turbellaria copulation

A

each worm delivers sperm to the other

428
Q

hypodermic/traumatic impregnation

A

use stylit to stab in to body and deliver sperm to body interior

429
Q

Phylum Platyhelminthes Classes

A

“Class Turbellaria” - free-living
Class Trematoda - flukes (endoparasite)
Class Cestoda - tapeworms (endoparasite)

430
Q

Amount of Platyhelminthes that are parasitic

A

75-80%

431
Q

benefits of being a parasite

A

protection against predators

stable, predictable environment

432
Q

Endoparasitism adaptations

A

Attachment structures
Modified body wall
Strategies to invade new hosts
High reproductive potential

433
Q

why endoparasites need adaptations

A

maintain preferred position within host

reproduce - don’t want a lot of individuals in single host or host will become compromised

434
Q

Platyhelminthes endoparasite body wall modifications

A 
loss of cilia
reduction of musculature 
reduction of sensory structures
nutrient absorption
resist host defenses
435
Q

why Platyhelminthes endoparasites adapt body wall

A

no active movement - don’t need cilia/muscles and don’t need to monitor surroundings
nutrient absorption - live in ‘nutrient soup’

436
Q

Platyhelminthes endoparasite strategies to invade new host

A

complex life cycle w/ definitive and intermediate host

437
Q

definitive host

A

the host in which the parasite is sexually mature

438
Q

role of intermediate host life stage

A

parasite is in larval stage
the way in which the parasite is able to invade the definitive host
may have >1 intermediate host

439
Q

Platyhelminthes endoparasite reproductive potential

A

have many eggs - since chance of getting to definitive host is low
polyembryony - even more eggs

440
Q

polyembryony

A

asexual duplication of developmental stages

441
Q

Class Trematoda

A

flukes
2 suckers, pharynx
e.g. Opisthorchis, Schistosome

442
Q

Class Trematoda morphology

A 
Mouth at anterior end surrounded by oral sucker
short pharynx below mouth (inside)
ventral sucker 
eggs in uterus (about 1/3 of body)
ovary
seminal vesicle
testes 
Intestinal caeca (from pharynx down sides of body)
443
Q

Opisthorchis (Clonorchis) sinensis

A

Oriental Liver Fluke

Trematode

444
Q

Opisthorchis sinensis life cycle

A

Adult in human (liver bile ducts)– eggs released in feces – eaten by snails – miracidium (larva) – sporocyst – polyembryony – redia – polyembryony – cercariae (free-living) – fish – metacercariae (in fish muscle) – eaten by human

445
Q

O. sinensis miracidium

A

highly ciliated

hooklets for burrowing in to snail digestive gland

446
Q

O. sinensis sporocyst

A

full of germinal balls
absorbs nutrients across wall
each germinal ball develops in to another sporocyst

447
Q

O. sinensis redia

A

also contain germinal balls

anterior mouth

448
Q

O. sinensis cercaria

A

hatch out of snail host
many cercaria from only 1 miracidium (1st larva)
muscular tail - free-swimming
swim to find 2nd intermediate host (fish)
burrow through gills into circulatory system of fish, migrate to muscles

449
Q

O. sinensis metacercaria

A

round cyst
cyst wall
in fish muscles

450
Q

O. sinensis function of first intermediate host

A

boost numbers

451
Q

O. sinensis function of second intermediate host

A

exploit feeding habits of definitive host

complete life cycle

452
Q

having the male and female reproductive organs in separate individuals

A

dioecious

453
Q

Schistosoma spp.

A

2nd most prevalent and destructive human disease
tropical
dioecious (unusual in Platy.)
many species w/ different definitive hosts

454
Q

Schistosoma spp. affects where/how

A

eggs deposited in mesenteric veins
puncture vein, move through circulatory system
try to reach digestive system

455
Q

Schistosoma spp. life cycle

A

develop in fresh water – burrow in to body of snail – polyembryony – circariae – swim around in water – directly infect definitive host by burrowing in to skin and entering circulatory system

456
Q

mesenteric vein

A

veins that drain large and small intestines (no direct route out of body to export eggs)

457
Q

swimmers itch

A

Bird schistosomes - try to burrow in to your skin but bird epithelium is thinner so they can’t make it through human skin

458
Q

Trematode life stages that undergo polyembryony

A

sporocyst

rediae

459
Q

results of Trematode polyembryony

A

genetic clones

exploit intermediate host to enhance fecundity (fertility) of parent worms

460
Q

Trematode polymorphism

A

1 instance found of soldier and reproductive polymorphs (rediae)
soldier is much smaller, non-reproductive, large mouth, very active, attacks non-clonal individuals that may have also invaded host

461
Q

Class Cestoda morphology

A 
anterior hooks
2 anterior suckers (look like eyes)
NO mouth
neck
strobila (proglottids)
462
Q

generative region of Class Cestoda

A

duplicative trunks bud off from neck

463
Q

Anterior end of Cestoda

A

scolex = hooks + suckers

464
Q

Class Cestoda characteristics

A

typically vertebrate definitive host
hooks on to digestive tract
fertilization can occur between separate proglottids

465
Q

proglottid

A

duplicative trunk section
contains complete M&F reproductive structures
strobila is the combined set of proglottids
when filled w/ eggs, break off terminally

466
Q

Taenia life cycle

A

adult tape worm in carnivore – proglottids – feces on ground – eaten by herbivore – oncosphere (egg) – hatches – burrows through gut wall – cysticercus – eaten by carnivore (e.g. wolf)

467
Q

Taenia oncosphere

A

4 central hooks for burrowing through herbivore gut wall

468
Q

Taenia cysticercus

A

still looks egg-shaped, encysted in herbivore
excess scolex inside definitive host in digestive lumen
scolex latches on

469
Q

encyst

A

enclose or become enclosed in a cyst

excyst - escape from cyst

470
Q

Echinococcus sp.

A 
Cestoda
2-3mm long
adult has 3-4 proglottids
carnivore def. host (usually wolf/coyote)
hydatid cyst
471
Q

Hydatid cyst

A

unique to Echinococcus sp.

terminal proglottid is a HUGE ball filled w/ cystocercai undergoing polyembryony

472
Q

Phylum Annelida lifestyles and habitats

A

motile, sessile, sedentary

marine, freshwater, terrestrial

473
Q

Significant innovations in the Annelid body plan development

A 
gut w/ mouth + anus
metamerism
eucoeloms
gut muscularization
blood vascular system
474
Q

Annelid gut

A

bidirectional: mouth - anus

allows specialization of different digestion steps, increases digestions efficiency, appropriate for active lifestyle

475
Q

Annelid metamerism

A

duplication of trunk segments

generation zone btw last metamere and pygidium

476
Q

pre-Annelid ancestor morphology

A

prostomium - trunk - pygidium

mouth - digestive tract - anus

477
Q

Annelid post-metameric ancestor morphology

A

prostomium - peristomium - 4 metameres - regeneration zone - pygidium
mouth - digestive tract - anus

478
Q

Annelid eucoelomic compartments

A

2 compartments around gut lined w/ mesoderm

connected by dorsal/ventral mesentaries

479
Q

1st segment of Annelid

A

peristomium

480
Q

Annelid gut muscularization

A

increased digestion efficiency by being able to move material down gut while organism remains stationary

481
Q

Annelid coelomic compartments interior

A

lined w/ cilia to circulate gases, maintain homogeneity rather than allowing gradient to form at surface so that diffusion will continue

482
Q

mesentery

A

double layer of mesothelium mid-dorsally and mid-ventrally between coelomic compartments (in each metamere)

483
Q

Annelid last segment

A

pygidium

not a metamere

484
Q

Annelid blood vascular system

A

convey nutrients/gases between metameres through dorsal/ventral blood vessels
also segmental blood vessels

485
Q

segmental blood vessels

A

each metamere has blood vessels between d/v blood vessels in each coelomic compartment

486
Q

Annelid blood movement

A

dorsal blood vessel is lined with epitheliomuscle cells that pump it

487
Q

Functions of coelomic compartments, Annelids

A

circulation of nutrients and gases
hydrostatic skeleton
role in excretion, osmoregulation
storage of gametes

488
Q

Annelid hydrostatic skeleton

A

metamerism aids the ability to thrust - change shape of body w/o allowing pressure to be conducted to rest of body

489
Q

Peristaltic Burrowing

A

alternation of circular + longitudinal-muscle-contraction waves
Forward movement produced by contraction of circular muscles, which elongates body; contraction of longitudinal muscles shortens and anchors body

490
Q

Needed for peristaltic burrowing

A

fluid-filled coelom (hydrostatic skeleton)
circular + longitudinal muscles
Setae (chaetae)

491
Q

Setae

A

chitinous bristles
important in locomotion
diagnostic of Annelids

492
Q

Annelid excretion

A

dorsal bv is leaky fluid passes through basal lamina– circulates through coelomic comp. - in to metanephridium - out of body

493
Q

Annelid excretion, basal lamina

A

ultrafiltration

494
Q

Annelid excretion, metanephridium

A

tube-like structure in-to coelomic compartment
selective reabsorption
opening to coelom is in a different metamere than opening to external environment

495
Q

metanephridium external opening

A

nephridiopore

496
Q

functional significance of metameres

A

facilitate regional pressure differentials (help generate unidirectional thrust)

497
Q

dorsal blood vessel leaky cells

A

podocytes

498
Q

coelomic compartments gametes

A

gametes generated by mesothelium

stored in eucoelom

499
Q

Annelid nervous system

A

dorsal brain

ganglionate ventral nerve cord

500
Q

Annelid dorsal brain

A

2 cerebral ganglia in prostomium

501
Q

Annelid nerve cord

A

ventrally under v.b.v

1-2 ganglia in each metamere

502
Q

How chaetae work

A

held erect on shortened fat metameres to maintain position in burrow

503
Q

past Annelid taxonomy

A

Polychaeta s.g. to
Oligochaeta s.g. to
Hirudinea
Oligo. + Hiru = Clitellata

504
Q

groups that didn’t fit in past Annelid taxonomy

A

Pogonophora (tubeworm)
Echiura (spoon worm)
Sipuncula (peanut worm)

505
Q

trouble with past Annelid taxonomy

A

groups didn’t have a clear position

Polychaeta was not monophyletic (para)

506
Q

New Annelida taxonomy

A

developed w/ molecular taxonomy
we will focus on
Errantia and Sedentaria
both contain polychaetes

507
Q

Errantia

A

active lifestyle

many annelid plesiomorphic traits

508
Q

Sedentaria

A

-sedentary/sessile

diverse, derived traits

509
Q

Errantia examples

A

Nereididae

Glyceridae

510
Q

Polychaeta

A

polyphyletic group

511
Q

Sedentaria examples

A 
Arenicolidae
Sabellidae
Terebellidae
Siboglinidae
Echiuridae
512
Q

Nereididae

A

Errantid
ragworm
paired, well-developed parapodia on each metamere
high concentration of cephalic sensory appendage

513
Q

Errantia lifestyle

A

active - burrowing, surface crawling, swimming

why they have lots of sensory appendages

514
Q

Errantia habitat

A

marine

515
Q

Errantia morphology

A

well-developed, similar parapodia on most metameres
eversible, armed pharynx
prominent head appendages - sensory reception

516
Q

Errantid parapodium morphology

A

2-lobed

2 muscular rods w/ bundle of chitinous chaetae

517
Q

Errantid parapodium lobes

A

dorsal lobe = notopodium

ventral lobe = neuropodium

518
Q

Errantid parapodium rods

A

acicula - responsible for back and forth movement (stroke, recovery)

519
Q

Errantid acicula function

A

traction when crawling
surface area when swimming
(due to the chaetae)

520
Q

Errantid locomotion

A 
2-gear
slow crawling
rapid crawling
(stroke, recovery)
parapodia on opposite sides of body are out of phase
stroke propagated down length of body
521
Q

Errantid rapid locomotion

A

lateral body undulations
effective stroking augmented by convex curvatures of body thrusting against medium
convex curve = effective stroke

522
Q

Errantid jaws

A

at end of everted muscular pharynx
grab/shred/capture prey
fossilized records

523
Q

Glyceridae

A

Errantid
blood worm
red - hemoglobin
live in burrows - low O2 environment

524
Q

Glyceridae ancestral traits

A

prostomium

small parapodia

525
Q

Glyceridae tunnel

A

interconnected tubes

anterior end near entry - detect movement - lung out w/ long muscular pharynx

526
Q

Glyceridae jaw

A

4 jaws at end of everted pharynx, each w/ venom gland

527
Q

Sedentaria lifestyle

A

sedentary/sessile

permanent burrows or secreted tubes

528
Q

Sedentaria morphology

A

reduced parapodia
regional specialization of parapodia
pharynx may evert but not armed
some elaborate head appendages for feeding

529
Q

Arenicolidae

A 
Sedentary
'lug worm'
muddy sand substrate
j-shaped burrow
reduced parapodia
no jaws
530
Q

Arenicolidae parapodia

A

only on mid section
neuropodia - reduced to ridge w/ chaetae
notopodium - elaborate dendritic branching gill

531
Q

Arenicolidae pharynx

A

no jaws
filter feeder
covered w/ stick lapilli - ‘mop up’ sediment

532
Q

Arenicolidae feeding

A

anterior at end of J-shaped burrow - peristaltic body movement - pull water in - H2O percolates through sand at head end - escapes through sink hole - leaves behind particles

533
Q

J-shaped burrow ‘head end’

A

‘blind end’

534
Q

Arenicolidae waste disposal

A

back up out burrow entrance - stick anus out - eject fecal material = fecal castings

535
Q

Sabellidae

A 
Sedentary
'feather duster worm'
sessile
secreted, proteinaceous tube
find on docks
entire life in tube
536
Q

Sabellidae crown

A

radioles (tentacles) - ciliated, create water currents
capture phytoplankton, carry down central axis to mouth
suspension feeding

537
Q

Sabellidae parapodia

A

minimal anterior extensions for crawling up/down tube

538
Q

Radiole pigment spot

A

photoreceptor

Sabellidae

539
Q

Terebellidae

A 
Sedentaria 
'spaghetti worm'
surface deposit feeder
under rocks
2 tentacle types
540
Q

Terebellidae tube

A

cemented together local particles (shell debris, sand)

541
Q

Terebellidae parapodia

A

very small/reduced

542
Q

Terebellidae tentacles

A

long white - feeding

red, fine, short - gas exchange

543
Q

Siboglinidae

A 
Sedentaria
giant vent worms
previously not known to be annelid
secreted tube
red plume/tentacles
544
Q

Siboglinidae morphology

A

red tentacles - not feeding
opisthosome
trophosome

545
Q

Siboglinidae opisthosome

A

segmented posterior (metameres) - each has coelomic compart., paired chaetae bundle

546
Q

Purpose of Siboglinidae posterior chaetae

A

hanging on to tube

547
Q

Siboglinidae trophosome

A

contains sulphide oxidizing bacteria - intracellular bacteria

548
Q

chemosynthesis metabolic pathway

A

H2S (sulfide) + O2 – SO4 (sulfate) + E

E drives calvin benson cycle – fix organic carbon

549
Q

Echiuridae

A

Sedentaria
trunk buried in sediment
deposit feeder
elongate anterior end extends to environment

550
Q

Echiuridae morphology

A

paired setae
trunk
prostomium - long anterior extension (elongate prostomium homolog)

551
Q

Bonellia

A

genus in Echiuridae
long, ciliated, forked prostomium
green

552
Q

Echiuridae labelled w/ anti-serotonin antibody

A

highlife segmentally arranged neurons = metameric pattern of neuronal cell bodies
only preservation of metamerism

553
Q

Annelid reproduction (ancestral)

A

Dioecious (gonochoristic)
Gametes from mesothelium
Broadcast spawn
External fertilization in seawater

554
Q

Annelid gametes

A

from mesothelium of eucoelomic compartment

stored in euceolomic comp.

555
Q

Annelid spawning

A

broadcast

gametes escape coelom via coelomoducts or metanephridia

556
Q

Class Clitellata Subclasses

A

Oligochaeta (earthworms)
Hirudinea
(leaches)

557
Q

Siboglinidae branchial filaments

A

increase surface area for gas absorption

558
Q

Gases needed for Siboglinidae symbionts

A

O2
CO2
SO4 (sulphate)
branchial filaments connect to trophosome

559
Q

Marine Annelid reproduction

A

dioecious
external fertilization broadcast spawn
trochophore larva

560
Q

Marine Annelid gametes

A

from mesothelium
stored in coelom
escape through coelomoducts or metanephridia

561
Q

Epitoky

A

morphological transformation into a sexual individual

562
Q

Annelids undergo epitoky

A

to leave benthic habitat and swim up in water column

563
Q

when do Annelids undergo epitoky

A

in response to environmental cues, all at same time for reproductive purposes

564
Q

Annelid epitoky - the changes

A

large eyes (to detect enviro. cue)
parapodia enlarge
ripe gametes in coelomic compartments
regression of gut

565
Q

enlargement of parapodia in epitoky (Annelid)

A

enlarged for swimming paddles

chaetae increased for efficiency

566
Q

regression of gut in epitoky (Annelida)

A

only in some species

using every bit of energy they can for reproduction (then die)

567
Q

Type of transformation (epitoky, Annelida)

A

Direct transformation
Posterior transformation
Posterior budding

568
Q

Direct transformation (epitoky, Annelida)

A

whole worm undergoes transformation and swims up in water column

569
Q

why is epitoky dangerous

A

the swimming up-column ‘in-mass’ (swarming) proposes a high predation risk

570
Q

Posterior transformation (epitoky, Annelida)

A

only posterior transforms – breaks off – posterior 1/2 swims up

571
Q

Posterior budding (epitoky, Annelida)

A

Epitokes bud off of posterior end and swarm up in water column

572
Q

trochophore larva

A

apical ciliary tuft
stomach, mouth, anus, complete digestive tract
2-3 bands of cilia
feeding or non-feeding

573
Q

trochophore larva circumferential ciliary bands

A

prototroch - anterior, swimming

metatroch - posterior, feeding

574
Q

trochophore larva feeding

A

prototroch effective stroke (down) draws particles toward metatroch – metatroch effective stroke (up) draws particle in to food groove – short cilia draw particle to mouth

575
Q

trochophore larval development

A

begin adding metameres to posterior end (pygidium) - lose cilia - crawl away as juvenile annelid

576
Q

Clitellata characteristics

A 
Sednetaria
no parapodia
2 pairs of setae/metamere
hermaphroditic
clitellum
577
Q

clitellum

A

several adjacent metameres swollen with glandular cells

functions in reproduction

578
Q

Annelid movement

A

peristaltic burrowing through sediment

alternating contractions of circular and longitudinal muscles

579
Q

contraction of circular muscles, Annelida

A

contracting fluid in metamere and pushing anterior forward

580
Q

maintaining position in a burrow

A

shortened/fattened metameres + erect setae push against sides of burrow

581
Q

oligochaete digestive system

A

regional specialization

mouth – pharynx w/ dilator muscles – esophagus – crop – gizzard – intestine – anus

582
Q

Annelid gizzard

A

breaks up material

physical maceration

583
Q

Annelid intestine

A

chemical break-down of material

absorb material

584
Q

Annelid intestine features in cross section

A

typhlosole

chlorogogen

585
Q

typhlosole

A

infolded gastrodermis in centre - increase surface area for enzymatic gland cells and absorptive cells for digestion

586
Q

chlorogogen tissue

A

specialized mesothelium

intermediary metabolism

587
Q

what is intermediary metabolism

A

glycogen/fat synthesis and storage
hemoglobin synthesis
protein catabolism
urea synthesis

588
Q

importance of urea synthesis

A

ammonia is toxic - hard to flush out in terrestrial animals

urea less toxic (but metabolically expensive)

589
Q

Oligochaete reproduction

A

pseudocopulation

2 worms in clitellum secreted ‘sleeve of mucus’ - transfer sperm to seminal receptacle

590
Q

Oligochaete reproduction post-copulation

A

clitellum forms hard, proteinaceous cocoon + nutrients – slips down – collects egg - slips down – collects sperm – slips off anterior end

591
Q

oligochaete reproductive structures

A

clitellum
male gonopore
female gonopore
seminal receptical

592
Q

invasive earthworms

A

native worms died from glaciation – agriculture brought them from Europe/Asia - spread by fishing - damaging forest not adapted for them

593
Q

how earthworms can damage a forest

A

the plants are adapted to nutrients in the top soil layers - worms mix the nutrients down

594
Q

Hirudinea

A 
Sedentaria, Clitellata
leeches, bloodsuckers
no parapodia, setae
clitellum, suckers
hermaphroditic 
dorso-ventrally flattened
fixed n metameres
595
Q

Hirudinia locomotion

A

swim and crawl

“looping”

596
Q

Hirudinia locomotion body features

A

no setae
anterior/posterior suckers
dorso-ventrally flattened

597
Q

leech looping

A

posterior sucker attaches to substrate - contract circular muscles - elongate - anterior sucker attaches – release pos. sucker - contract long. muscles -…

598
Q

Hirudinia swimming

A

dorsal/ventral undulations

599
Q

Hirudinian parasitism

A 
ectoparasitism 
attach on w/ anterior sucker
3 jaws
buccal secretions
dilator muscles of pharynx
600
Q

Hirudinian jaws

A

cuticle elaborated/sculted to form cutting blades

may leave Y-shaped incision on host

601
Q

Hirudinian buccal secretions

A

topical anesthetic (so host is unaware)
vaso-dilators (expand vessels to increase flow)
anticoagulants (hirudin)

602
Q

Hirudinian pharynx dilator muscles

A

expand lumen of pharynx - creates negative pressure - blood gets sucked in to body (similar to oligochaete pharynx)

603
Q

Hirudinian digestive system

A

jaws – pharynx – crop – crop caeca – intestine – anus (below anterior sucker)

604
Q

crop caeca

A

extensions of crop for wall expansion during feeding

605
Q

why do Hirudinia need crop caeca

A

blood is high H2O - need a lot to get nutrients - have to expand alot to get good meal

606
Q

Hirudinia excretion

A

metanephridia

607
Q

two smaller Lophotrochozoan groups

A

Phylum Nemertea

Phylum Rotifera

608
Q

Phylum Nemertea

A 
'proboscis worms'
'ribbon worms'
long, thin, dorso-ventrally flattened, ciliate epidermis
secrete celephane-like tube
highly extensible
predatory 
*proboscis
609
Q

Nemertea habitat

A

mostly marine, shallow water benthic, rock or sediment

610
Q

Nemertea movement

A

motile
muscular/cilia crawling
peristaltic-type movement (deformable body)

611
Q

Proboscis

A

mesothelium sac lined w/ circular muscle, above mouth, contains extendible proboscis - attached to proboscis retractor muscle - may be barbed and toxin bearing

612
Q

how proboscis is ejected

A

proboscis sac filled w/ fluid - circular muscle contraction - increased fluid pressure - propel prob. out

613
Q

Nemertine body compartments

A

Rhynchocoel (prob sac) - mesothelium

lateral blood vessels - coelomic compartments

614
Q

Nemertine blood vessels

A

epithelium - true coelomic
exterior lined w/ basal lamina
interior ciliated
apicobasal polarity exactly like miniature annelid compartments

615
Q

Nemertine reproduction

A

dioecious
transient gonads
broadcast spawn
free swimming larva

616
Q

Nemertine gonads

A

concentrated cells - repeated clusters of gametes - down length of body, ducts form in reproductive season - broadcast spawn

617
Q

Nemertine larva

A

trochophore-like
external fertilization
juvenile worm develops inside of larva body -metamorphosis- breaks out - eats larva body

618
Q

Phylum Rotifera

A 
'wheel animalcules'
ciliated corona
small 0.1-0.5mm
pseudocoelomate
eutely
some syncytial
lorica
619
Q

Rotifer corona use

A

swimming

phytoplankton capture

620
Q

pseudocoelomate

A

secondary body compartment not derived from mesothelium

621
Q

eutely

A

following development constant n cells - never more - every animal the same

622
Q

lorica

A

intracellular cytoskeletal elements
meshwork of keratin-like protein fibres
thin/flexible or thick/rigid

623
Q

Rotifer morphology

A

corona - 3 ciliary bands, mouth, master
trunk - stomach, protonephridia, anus
foot + toes

624
Q

Rotifer cilia

A

function like trochophore larva (direct food to mouth) through convergence

625
Q

mastax

A

pharynx with trophi (chitinous plates)

626
Q

Rotifer diversity

A

swimming, sessile in secreted tube, herbivore, predatory, swim by moveable stiff lorica extensions (plates/scales), colonial

627
Q

Rotifer freshwater survival

A

protonephridia
cryptobiosis
amictic-mictic life cycle

628
Q

protonephridia role in freshwater survival

A

help to maintain osmotic balance

629
Q

cryptobiosis

A

expel all water - survive long time as ‘dried up flake’ - rehydrate in favourable condition

630
Q

Rotifer life cycle

A

favourable conditions: amictic female (2n) – diploid egg – amictic female –
unfavourable: amictic female - mictic female (2n) - haploid egg - haploid male - fertilized egg (2n) - amictic female

631
Q

amictic

A

incapable of being fertilized : parthenogenetic : producing eggs that develop without fertilization

632
Q

Rotifer reproduction during favourable conditions

A

parthenogenesis

633
Q

how amictic/mictic reproduction helps Rotifer survive winter

A

fertilized eggs can enter diapause
“winter eggs”
“diapause eggs”
thick secreted coating that withstands freezing/dessication

2016/2017 (15 decks)

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