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NEURO > Physiology > Flashcards

Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 3 major divisions of the association cortex?

A
  1. Parieto-occipito-temporal AA - polysensory integration and language
  2. Prefrontal cortex - exec functions, motor planning, attention, working memory
  3. Limbic aa - memory, emotion, motivation
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2
Q

What are the functions of the parieto-occipito-temporal AA? and what would damage result in?

A
  • interpretive meaning, spatial coordinates, processing of visual language, naming objects, language comprehension (wernicke’s)
  • damage - lose names/reading comprehension
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3
Q

What are the functions of the pre-frontal AA?

A
  • interacts with motor cortex + P-O-T-AA, working memory, elaboration of thought
  • damage - easily distracted, trouble with complex problem solving, morals, sequential or parallel tasks
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4
Q

What are the functions of the limbic aa?

A
  • behaviour, judgment, emotions, motivation

- lesion - difficulty with abstract reasoning, judgment and mood

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5
Q

How are Broca’s area and Wernicke’s involved in communication?

A

Wernicke’s - formation of word, thought and choice of word (integrates auditory, visual and somatosensory aa)
–> feeds to broca via arcuates fasciculus
Broca’s - premotor speech, initiates mvmt of mouth/lips etc, articulation
–> feeds into motor cortex

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6
Q

What is the pathway for auditory communication?

A
  1. primary auditory area recognise sound as a word
  2. wernicke’s - interpretation of word
  3. wernicke’s - form word
  4. Arcuate fasciculus to broca’s
  5. Broca’s - control of word formation
  6. Motor cortex - control of speech muscles
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7
Q

What is the pathway for visual communication?

A
  1. Input received via primary visual area
  2. processing via P-O-T-AA
  3. Visual input interpretation in Wernicke’s
  4. Broca’s area for motor formation of word
  5. Transmission to motor cortex to control speech muscles
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8
Q

What are the 3 stages of learning and memory?

A
  1. acquisition
  2. storage
  3. retrieval
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9
Q

What are 3 types of memory?

A
  1. Declarative - explicit - explaining how to walk home
  2. Procedural - implicit - walking home
  3. Working memory - holding immediate info from many sources to carry out a task
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10
Q

What are the brain centres involved it:

  1. working memory
  2. memory storage
  3. memory recall
A
  1. working memory - prefrontal cortex
  2. memory storage - hippocampus
  3. memory recall - thalamus
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11
Q

What is consolidation?

A

Turning short term memory into long-term memory

- involves interaction between hippocampus and many other structures

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12
Q

How would hippocampus and thalamus damage present? (in relation to memory)

A

hippocampus (storage) - anterograde amnesia

thalamus (recall) - retrograde amnesia

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13
Q

What is habituation? and facilitation?

A

Habituation - learning to ignore stimuli that lack meaning (-ve memory and inhibit synaptic pathways)
Facilitation - learning to intensify response to stimuli (+ve learning, facilitate synaptic pathways)

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14
Q

How do -ve/+ve memory mechanisms result in habituation and facilitation?

A

Reduce/increase:

  • NT production
  • Ca2+ channels
  • post synaptic receptors
  • synapses
  • 2nd messengers
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15
Q

How does facilitation increase the amount of NT released?

A

Facilitatory neurone - releases 5-HT –> GPCR –> Adenylyl cyclase –> cAMP –> PKA –> Phosphorylates K+ channel (closes) –> slower depolarisation –> prolonged AP –> more calcium and more NT released

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16
Q

What is long-term potentiation?

A

Synapses becoming increasingly sensitive to a constant level of stimulation - resulting in a larger post-synaptic output

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17
Q

In LTP, what does the non-NMDA and the NMDA pathway involve?

A

non-NMDA - glutamate binds AMPAR (allowing Na+ to flow)

NMDA - Mg2+ usually blocking the receptor but glutamate binds and allows Ca2+ to enter

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18
Q

What is the reticular excitatory area and what does it do?

A

REA - general system for control of overall level of excitation of the brain (in reticular formation of pons and midbrain)
sends signals down - to control antigravity muscles/spinal reflexes
sends signals up - through thalamus (1) to excite cerebrum rapidly via ACh and gigantocellular neurones (2) long term excitation NA/DA

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19
Q

Where is the reticular inhibitory area and what does it do?

A

RIA - medulla in reticular formation

inhibits excitation of REA via serotonergic projections (5HT inhibitory in this instance)

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20
Q

In neurohormonal control of excitation, what are the actions of:

(1) Ach
(2) NA
(3) DA
(4) 5-HT

A

(1) Ach (REA) - excitatory, when acutely awake and REM sleep
(2) NA (locus coeruleus) - excitatory (wakefulness and non-REM)
(3) DA (S.N.) - Excite/inhibit (region dependent)
(4) 5-HT (Raphe nucleus)- inhibitory (sleep and mood)

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21
Q

What two hormones dominate in the cortex and what are their functions?

A
  1. Glutamate - excitatory - binds NMDA/AMPA receptors

2. GABA - inhibitory - binds GABA A or B channel receptors

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22
Q

What is EEG used for and what is it good/bad at?

A

Mainly used for brain wave activity, good at temporal (time) resolution but poor at spatial resolution
Detects changes in electrical potential

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23
Q

What is the cortical state of:

  1. Beta
  2. Alpha
  3. Delta
  4. Gamma
A
  1. Beta - alert/aroused/dreaming(REM)
  2. Alpha - Awake, relaxed, eyes closed
  3. Delta - deep sleep
  4. Gamma - higher cognitive/attentional states
24
Q

What does a PET scan measure?

A

Measures - distribution of organic molecules like water, glucose, sodium
Good spatial resolution, poor temporal resolution (minutes) - shows brain in different colours

25
Q

What does fMRI measure?

A

Measures - oxygenated blood (increased neural firing, increased metabolism, increased oxygen)
Spatial resolution good, temporal resolution bad (5-8 seconds)

26
Q

Where does the lateral corticospinal tract decussate, terminate and innervate?

A

decussate - medulla
terminate - contralateral spinal cord
innervate - distal limb muscles

27
Q

Where does the ventral corticospinal tract terminate and innervate?

A

terminate - ipsilateral spinal cord

innervate - proximal limb muscles

28
Q

What is the rubrospinal tract and what does it innervate?

A

Receives fibres from primary motor cortex, decussates in lower brain stem and descends in lateral columns
innervates - mostly interneurons

29
Q

What are the ventromedial tracts?

A
  1. reticulospinal - pontine and medullary for antigravity
  2. vestibulospinal - balance/equilibrium
  3. tectospinal - visual adjustments
30
Q

What are the inputs and outputs of the reticulospinal tract?

A

Input: vestibular system, cerebellum, GP, hypothalamus
Outputs:
(1) pontine (medial) - excites axial and extensor muscles for antigravity
(2) medullary (lateral) - inhibit extensor and and excite flexor - relax antigravity from reflex
The antagonistic function modulates reflexes during ongoing function

31
Q

What is the vestibulospinal pathway?

A
  • vestibule (semicircular canals, utricle, saccule)
  • vestibular nuclei
  • VST
  • spinal cord
  • postural muscles
32
Q

What is the tectospinal pathway?

A

visual input –> tectum –> tectospinal tract –> cervical spinal cord, head and neck muscles

33
Q

What are the 3 functional divisions of the cerebellum?

A
  1. Vestibulocerebellum
  2. Spinocerebellum
  3. Cerebrocerebellum
34
Q

What does accommodation mean? (vision)

A

Lens shape adjusts so that the external image falls on the retina - adjusts by ciliaris muscles

35
Q

How does the iris control the amount of light entering the eye? and what muscles

A

Constriction (para) - inner circular iris sphincter muscle - less light
Dilation (Symp) - outer radial iris dilator muscle - more light

36
Q

What are the two photoreceptors and what are they made of?

A

Rods and cones, made of rhodopsin (retinal and opsin - opsin differ between rods and cones)

37
Q

What is phototransduction?

A

Light interacts with rhodopsin –> 2nd messengers and a change in membrane potential
no light: depolarisation and NT release
Light: hyperpolarisation - stop NT release

38
Q

What cells are involved in retinal processing?

A
  1. horizontal cells - input from photoreceptors

2. amacrine cells - input from bipolar cells

39
Q

What types of ganglia cells form the optic nerve?

A
  1. midget

2. parvocellular

40
Q

What potentials do bipolar and ganglion cells produce?

A

Bipolar - graded potentials

Ganglion - action potentials

41
Q

In the inner ear, what are the functions of the

  1. cochlea
  2. vestibule
  3. semicircular canals
A
  1. cochlea - hearing - organ of court hair cells
  2. vestibule (utricle+saccule)- static equilibrium through macula hair cells
  3. semicircular canals - dynamic equilibrium through crista ampularis hair cells
42
Q

What do the semicircular canals respond to?

A

The 3 canals lie in different planes of space and sense rotational acceleration of the head. Hairs project into fluid which remains stationary-sh as head rotates - when the hairs bend - action potential synapses with vestibular nerve

43
Q

What are the skeletal muscle fibre types?

A

Type I - slow contracting, fatigue resistant
Type 2a - fast contracting, fatigue resistant
Type2b - fast contracting, fast fatigue

44
Q

What are the effects of skeletal muscle denervation? (6)

A
  1. Paralysis - immediate
  2. Fasciculation - immediate
  3. Fibrillation - days - spontaneous twitching
  4. Supersensitivity to Ach - days
  5. Muscle atrophy - >1wk
  6. Receptiveness to innervation
45
Q

What is myasthenia gravis?

A

AI disorder affecting NMJ transmission

  • antibodies against Each receptors = reduced function
    affects: cranial and limb muscles
46
Q

What is lambert-eaton syndrome?

A

AI disorder affecting NMJ transmission

- reduced amount of ACh released due to antibodies against Ca2+ channels

47
Q

What is Duchenne muscular dystrophy?

A

Mutation in dystrophin gene = absent or depleted dystrophin

  • muscle has impaired regeneration after damage and more susceptible to necrosis
  • increased fibrosis
  • Becker = much less severe
48
Q

What is Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy?

A

Onset of muscle weakness age 4-5, flexion deformities

49
Q

What is myotonia?

A

Ion channel disease affecting chloride conductance = cumulative after potential and repetitive firing of APs

50
Q

What is motor neurone disease (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis)?

A

Progressive degernation of the CNS motor neurone

- weakness, fasciculation, muscle atrophy from muscle degeneration

51
Q

What structure in the brain is essential in the consolidation process?

A

Hippocampus

52
Q

Process of phototransduction when light enters the eye

A
  1. light absorbed by photopigment
  2. retinal and opsin dissociate
  3. opsin activates transducin and which activates phosphodiesterase
  4. cGMP levels in cytosol decrease
  5. sodium channels close
  6. HYPERPOLARISATION
  7. Calcium channels close
  8. transmitter release decreased
  9. graded potential in bipolar gets smaller
53
Q

What potentials do bipolar and ganglion cells produce?

A

Bipolar - graded potential

Ganglion - action potential

54
Q

Types of muscle fibres

A

Type 1 - slow contracting, fatigue resistant
Type 2a - fast contracting, fatigue resistant
Type 2b - fast contracting, fast fatigue

55
Q

How are muscle cells invervation dependent

A
  • cross innervation of muscle cells results in switching of muscle properties according to the nerve type
  • can change from fast to slow
56
Q

Treatment of mysasthenia gravis and lambert-eaton

A
  • decrease Ach breakdown
  • increase calcium influx
  • immune suppression
57
Q

What is the difference between duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy in terms of mutation?

A

Duchenne - out of frame transcript = dysfunctional and unstable protein
Becker - in frame transcript = partially functional dystrophin

NEURO (5 decks)

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