Frågor från kursen Flashcards
What is vigilance?
Vigilance is a person’s ability to detect unobtrusive stimuli in a prolonged observation task. More formally: The ability to maintain attention and alertness. The reduction of vigilance over time is called the vigilance decrement, which may be caused by boredom, low frequency of stimuli, low amplitude of stimuli, etc.
Describe the first of the six epochs of evolution:
Epoch 1: Physics and chemistry
Information in atomic structures
Describe the second of the six epochs of evolution:
Epoch 2: Biology
Information about DNA
Describe the third of the six epochs of evolution:
Epoch 3: Brains
Information in neural patterns
Describe the fourth of the six epochs of evolution:
Epoch 4: Technology
Information in hardware and software designs
Describe the fifth of the six epochs of evolution:
Epoch 5: Merge of technology and human intelligence
The methods of biology (including human intelligence) are integrated into the (exponentially expanding) human technology base
Describe the sixth of the six epochs of evolution:
Epoch 6: The universe wakes up
Patterns of matter and energy in the universe becomes saturated with intelligent processes and knowledge
Describe some main findings/breakthroughs in the industrial/technological revolution between 1750 - WW1:
- Powered machines (steam power, water wheels, combustion engine)
- Improved precision of parts
- Mining, iron-making technologies
- Canals, roads, railroads
- Production line, mass production
- electricity
Describe Taylorism/Fordism
- Standardization
- Procedures
- High level of managerial control
- Time and motion study of human work
- Economic incentives (wage motive)
- Assembly line, division of labor
Describe the procrustean approach
Approach of trying to adjust the human to the requirements of the task.
Describe the evolution during 1940 - 1949:
- Many people were mobilized. Therefore selecting and training individuals became impractical and costly.
- Complex military systems; fast-moving aircraft
- It was no lnger possible to use the ‘procrustean’ approach of fitting the human to the machine by means of selection and training => should fit the machine to the human
What are the three phases of human-machine research?
A. Knobs and dials
B. Borrowed engineering models
C. Human-computer interaction
Knobs and dials: Describe the solutions called ‘Quickening’ and ‘Predicting’
- Quickening: Showing a weighted combination of position, velocity etc
- Predicting: A broader term than quickening. For example using simulations to show current and predict future state
Describe shape-coding
Is when you make the appearance of the control more similar to its function.
Mention the steps of the vigilance paradigm:
- Low salience
- Irregular
- No feedback
- Sustained
Describe vigilance
Vigilance is the ability to sustain attention to a task for a period of time in order to detect and respond to infrequent and non-salient events.
What is vigilance decrement?
The decline of detection performance over time
When do the largest decrement of vigilance typically occur?
In the first 15 minutes of a watch
Describe the arousal theory of vigilance
The sustained aspect of vigilance makes people under-aroused and perceptually insensitive
Which substances increase/decrease arousal and perceptual sensitivity?
Increase:
- Caffeine
- Amphetamines
Decrease: Alcohol
What is anthropometry?
The measurement of human individuals for the purpose of understanding human physical variation
What is psychophysics?
The study of the relationship between a physical stimulus and the observers psychological experience in response to that stimulus.
Mention three engineering/mathematical theories applied to the human
- Detection theory
- Information theory
- Control theory
What is detection theory?
Is a means to quantify the way people discern between a signal and a noise. Can be used to calculate perceptual sensitivity and response bias from the hit rate and false alarm rate
What are the four possible outcomes in detection theory?
hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection
Mention factors influencing reaction time
- Modality: auditory and touch faster than visual
- stimulus intensity
- stimulus response compatibility
- individual differences (ex. age)
- practice
- preparation time
- arousal
- complexity (number of bits)
What does Hick’s law say?
That it is a linear relationship between reaction time and information (bits)
What does Fitt’s law say?
That more time is needed for targets that are smaller and/or further away (speed-accuracy tradeoff)
Describe how computers dramatically influenced Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)
- display technology
- control technology (e.g. touch screens, speech recognition)
- automation (manual control => supervisory control)
- virtual reality
Describe automation
The mechanical or electronic replacement of human labor (physical and/or mental labor)
Fitt’s list: Decribe which areas humans surpass machines in:
- Detect small amounts of visual or acoustic energy
- perceive patterns of light and sound
- exercise judgement
- reason inductively
- improve and use flexible procedures
- store very large amounts of information for long periods and to recall relevant facts
Fitt’s list: Decribe which areas machines surpass humans in:
- Respond quickly to control signals and apply great force smoothly and precisely
- reason deductively, including computational ability
- perform repetitive, routine tasks
- handle highly complex operations, i.e. to do many different things at once.
- store information briefly, and then erase it completely
Mention ‘obvious’ advantages of automation
- Ability to function in hazardous conditions (low/high temperatures, low/high pressure, high radiation..)
- High-frequency movement and information processing
- low frequency movement and information processing
- Cost
Mention ‘obvious’ disadvantages of automation
- automation can be costly (initial cost, unpredictable development cost)
- it is not possible to fully automate complex tasks yet (e.g. car driving)
What is function allocation?
Deciding which functions (tasks, jobs) of a man-machine system that should be allocated to the human and which to the machine
Mention some factors that should also be considered, besides Fitt’s list.
- Technological progress => more automation
- Practical design considerations
- Pitfalls of automation
- Not human VERSUS machine, but: stages of levels of automation
Describe the change from manual to supervisory control driven by automation
Earlier:
The human operator is continously controlling and observing the system
Nowadays:
One or more human operators are…
1. Setting initial conditions for,
2. Monitoring and intermittently adjusting, and
3. receiving information from
a computer that itself closes a loop (i.e. interconnects) through external sensors, effectors and the task environment.
Mention some cognition keywords when it comes to performance and behavior
- Planning/thinking
- Decision making/programming a computer
- Monitoring
- Intervening
- Remembering
- Mental states: mental workload, situation awareness, trust
What does vigilance tasks involve based on recent research?
- Focused mental effort
- Intensive information processing
- stress
- frustration
Give examples on how automation is used in aviation
- Displays
- Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) - Flight management system (FMS)
- Determining position
- Guiding along flight plan
- Advising on engine conditions, how to save fuel, vertical navigation etc
- Control display unit (CDU)
What are the occasional bursts of high mental workload for a pilot?
- Completing pre-landing checklist
- Monitoring descent speed and path
- Setting of flaps/slats
- Monitoring of autopilot modes and internal systems
- reprogramming of flight paths through control display unit (CDU)
- looking out of window
- radio communication/responding to air traffic control
- communicating with co-pilot
- dealing with unanticipated events (weather, technical failures)
What are the difficulties with automation in automated driving?
- Objects on the road
- Highway maintenance
- Adverse weather conditions
- Non-automated cars
Describe automation in road transport
Today, focus is on automation systems in single vehicles instead of automated highway systems
- Adaptive cruise control (ACC)
- Advanced emergency breaking (AEB)
- Automated parking
- Lane departure warning
- Forward collision warning
- Automotive navigation systems
What are the challenges with automation in road transport?
- Uptake of non-driving tasks, low situation awareness
- Low mental workload (with bursts of high mental workload)
- Behavioral adaption (i.e. driving with smaller safety margins)
- Disuse/false alarms
Describe automation in ships:
High degree of automation
- roll stabilization
- navigation systems
- computers for onboard communication and watch keeping
What are the challenges of automation in ships?
- Reduction in crew size leading to crew members being trained in multiple tasks
- Fatique, stress
- overreliance on automation
What is a teleoperator?
A system with artificial sensors and actuators that a human communicates with and controls over a system
What is a telerobot?
A machine that has the ability to perform automated work and is supervised by human(s) from a distance
What does process control refer to?
Process control refers to the control of a physical process that is continous in time and space.
What are the challenges with a typical control room?
- Hundreds of displays and alarms
- How to provide the right information after a serious malfunction?
What are the six pitfalls of automation?
- Lack of situation/mode awareness
- Loss of manual control skills
- Low/high mental workload
- Behavioral adaption
- Misuse of automation
- Disuse of automation
Six pitfalls of automation: Describe pitfall 1: Lack of situation/mode awareness
Unsafe situations may occur because the operator:
- Does not understand what is going on and does not know what to do
- Is not aware of the automation mode
- “The perception of the elements of the environment within a volume of time and space
- the comprehension of their meaning, and
- the projection of their status in the near future”
= Knowing what is going on so you can figure out what to do
Describe situation awareness global assesment technique (SAGAT):
At random movements during an experiment: Freeze the simulator and blank the displays.
Assess participants knowledge of what was happening at the time of the freeze.
Compare to objective data on what was actually happening
Describe mode error.
Human executes an intention in a way that is appropriate for one mode, when the device is actually in another mode
Six pitfalls of automation: Describe pitfall 2: Loss of manual control skills
The operator may become less proficient in manual control
Six pitfalls of automation: Describe pitfall 3: Low/High mental workload
- Unsafe situations may arise because the operator is suddenly overloaded (after a long period of low mental workload)
What is the main difference between a human and a computer in high task demands?
- A human experiences stress and increased mental workload. Degraded performance when task demands increase (i.e. graceful degradation)
- A computer experiences calamitous failure (brittle failure) <= instant!
Describe the term Workload.
Workload is a general term used to describe the cost of accomplishing task requirements for the human element of man-machine systems
What does the workload depend on?
- Imposed task, i.e. “task demands” (depends on number of subtasks to be completed, time limits etc..)
- Human capabilities and strategies
- Human perception (inferred task goals, performance feedback received etc…)
What is psychophysiology?
The branch of psychology that is concerned with the psychological bases of physical processes
Mention possible techniques for measuring mental workload
- Cardiovascular (e.g. Heart rate, heart rate variability)
- Brain activity
- Eye movement (e.g. variance of x/y coordinates)
- Pupil diameter
- Endocrine response
- Skin conductance
- Respiratory rate
- Blink rate/percentage eye closure
- Facial temperature
Six pitfalls of automation: Describe pitfall 4: Behavioral adaption
- Safety benefits of automation may not be realised because the operator adapts to the capabilities of automation
- Examples: increased risk taking, reduced safety margins
Six pitfalls of automation: Describe pitfall 5: Misuse of automation
- Unsafe situations may occur because the operator is over-relying on the automation, characterized by complacency and high trust in automation.
What are contributing factors to misuse of automation?
- Automation bias
- Multi-tasking and high mental workload
- High automation reliability
- Poor displays: automation’s states/modes unclear to human
- Lack of skills or self-confidence => rely on automation => even worse skills and self-confidence
Six pitfalls of automation: Describe pitfall 6: Disuse of automation
- Causes: False alarm/irrelevant advice from a decision aid
- Operator’s general attitude towards automation
What is the catch 22 about supervisory control?
The human supervisor needs experience about emergency situations, but his task is to avoid emergencies = The human supervisor is “trapped”
ex, key locked inside car: To open car, need keys. To have keys, need to open car.
Describe the Roseborough dilemma:
- Why do we need the human supervisor in complex control systems?
- Answer: To complement the machine for functions that are not modelable (such as emergencies/unexpected events)
- Human supervisors sometimes make mistakes; therefore they might need a decision aid
- However, the decision aid needs a model!
- (and if such a model would be available, then why not automate the decision implementation?)
What is the common way of reasoning when it comes to Bainbridge’s ironies of automation?
Human operator is slow, unreliable and inefficient. Therefore the human operator should be eliminated from the system by means of operator.
Describe Bainbridge’s ironies of automation
- Irony 1: Designer errors can be a major source of operating problems (operator errors become design errors)
- Irony 2: Human supervisor is left to do difficult tasks which the designer cannot think how to automate
- Irony 3: When manual take-over is needed there is likely to be something wrong, and the operator needs to be highly skilled (while actually deskilling has occured)
- Irony 4: The human supervisor has lack of feedback and experience about unusual situations (catch 22)
- Irony 5: “After three decades of highly prolific research on human vigilance, we are still making the same seemingly contradictory statement: a human being is a poor monitor, but that is what he or she ought to be doing”
- Irony 6: Computer is introduced because of speed, accuracy, and the ability to handle many complex operations. The human has been given an impossible task because he cannot monitor all computer’s decisions in real time
- Irony 7: The job of automation supervisor is one of the worst types. It is boring but responsible, and there is no opportunity to acquire or maintain the qualities required to handle the responsibility.
What are the four stages of automation?
- Sensory processing => information acquisition
- Perception/working memory => information analysis
- Decision making => Decision and action selection
- Response execution => Action implementation
Four stages of automation:
What steps are involved in stage 1: Information aquisition?
Low level: - Register - Scan - Observe Medium level: - Highlight - Lock-on target - Organize - Warn High level: - Select - Filter
Four stages of automation:
What steps are involved in stage 2: Information analysis?
Low-level: - Extrapolate - Predict - Show trends Medium level: - Integrate - Combine - Augment High level: - Manage - Summarize - Diagnose
Four stages of automation:
What steps are involved in stage 3: Decision and action selection?
Low level to high level (the computer…):
- Offers no assistance
- Suggests alternative ways
- Selects one way to do the task…
- …And executes the task if human approves
- …And restricted time veto before automatic execution
- …Executes automatically then informs the human
- …Executes automatically then informs the human if asked
- Selects the method, executes the task, and ignores the human
What does the ‘All-or-none fallacy’ mean?
Even highly automated systems, such as electric power networks need humans for supervision, adjustment, maintenance, expansion and improvement. Therefore one can draw the paradoxical conclusion that automated systems still are man-machine systems, for which both technical and human factors are important
Four stages of automation:
What steps are involved in stage 4: Action implementation?
Low level:
- Human executes task by means of hand/voice
High level:
- Machine executes task
What factors can jeopardize automation reliability?
- Imprecise sensors / noisy data
- Inappropriate algorithms for variations in operating conditions (e.g. autopilot in storm)
- Hardware malfunction
A higher level of automation is justified when…
- The risk (cost multiplied by probability of automation failure) is low
- The situation is time-critical (that is, no reliable response can be expected from the human)
Mention some design considerations in automated systems:
- Use knobs & dials principles (stimulus response, compability, redundancy, shape coding etc)
- Present salient feedback/warning about automation (status, actions, failures, intentions)
- Take into account mental workload; especially regarding emergency situations
- Remember that false alarms cause disuse. Carefully consider the decision threshold
- Use simulator-based training (to mitigate: catch 22 of supervisory control, deskilling, miscalibrated trust)
- Minimize cognitive overhead: automation should be easy to turn on and off
- Beware of the all-or-none fallacy. Instead, think in terms of levels and stages of automation
- Decision aids may be inappropriate for direct transducing of instructions (Roseborough dilemma)
- Consider presenting meta-information (plant health indicators, likelihood alarms, configural displays, semantic mapping)
Vibrotactile displays: What does stimulus mean?
A change in the environment. ex: warning lights turn on
Vibrotactile displays: What does sensation mean?
Detection of the stimulus. ex: light receptors in your eyes send neural signals to the brain
Vibrotactile displays: what does perception mean?
Integration of the meaning of the stimulus. ex: Human sees a “check oil symbol”
How is haptic stimuli perceived?
Haptic stimuli is perceived by “actively palpating (känna) an object or surface”
How is tactile stimuli perceived?
Tactile stimuli “are delivered passively to the skin surface” (ex. vibration of your mobile phone)
Tactile receptors in the skin: Mention receptor types
- Free nerve endings
- Tactile Merkel discs
- Hair follicle receptors
- Encapsulated nerve endings
increased nerve density => increased tactile sensitivity
Tactile receptors in the skin: What is a receptor field?
The area that the receptor monitors
Tactile receptors in the skin: What does adaption imply?
Adaption is a change in sensitivity (nerve pulse generation) in the presence of a constant stimulus)
Psychophysics: What are the four dimensions of coding?
- Frequency
- Amplitude
- Location
- Timing
Psychophysics, four dimensions of coding: Describe 1. Frequency
- Sensitive from 0.4 - 1000 Hz
- Most sensitive between 250 Hz - 300 Hz
- Can distinguish 9 levels at most
Psychophysics, four dimensions of coding: Describe 2. Amplitude
- Sensitivity dependent on frequency
- 0.6 - 0.8 mm generally ewoke pain
- Different per person and time
- Women more sensitive than men
Psychophysics, four dimensions of coding: Describe 3. Location
- Most sensitive in hands and lips
- At least 4 cm discrimination between locations, decreases as innervation increases
- Spatial effects, like apparent location or spatial masking
Psychophysics, four dimensions of coding: Describe 4. Timing
- Able to detect (inter)pulses of 10 ms (preffered 50 and 200 ms)
- Sense of urgency linked to inter-pulse interval
- Temporal effects, like temporal masking
According to BASt, what are the five levels of automated driving?
- Manual driving
- Driver assistance
- Partially automated driving
- Highly automated driving (HAD) (Driver can be requested to take over control by a take-over request (TOR)
- Fully automated driving (FAD)
Five levels of automated driving: How can vibrotactile feedback assist during stage 1, Manual driving?
Supplementary to traditional warnings:
- Driver probably engaged in visually/auditory tasks
- Vibrotactile stimuli are hard to ignore
- Take over requests may require multimodal feedback
Five levels of automated driving: How can vibrotactile feedback assist during stage 2, Driver assistance
Attention direction:
- Humans recognize location and temporal pattern better than amplitude and frequency
- The location of vibration mapped to direction of danger
Five levels of automated driving: How can vibrotactile feedback assist during stage 3, partially automated driving
Convey traffic information:
- Can vibrotactile feedback be effectively used to present complex information?
- Can vibrotactile feedback be used to convey information to the driver about surrounding traffic?
What is wrong with highly automated driving?
- Hands-free driving, but not mind-free driving
- How to make the automation understand your preferences and abilities?
- How to allow the driver to understand automation boundaries and limitations, and react on time?
It is possible to reduce error through appropriate design considerations. Appropriate design should…
- Assume the existence of error
- continually provide feedback
- continually interract with operators in an effective manner
- allow for the worst of situations
Describe haptic shared control:
- Continous sharing of control authority through forces (no more binary switches (on/off), but smooth shifting)
- Driver is better aware of changing, criticality of situation, as well as of the functionality and intent of the system
- Drivers can always overrule the system
- Can be based on any automation system that generates optimal steering inputs (visual controller)
- Allows driver to use fast reflexes and neuromuscular adaption (low-level neuromuscular controller)
What are the advantages of shared control?
- The principle of ‘redundancy gain’
- The principle of ‘minimal information access costs’
Describe the Roseborough dilemman in two sentences
If the machine aid is correct, then why not automate? Why have a human in the loop?
What is the probabilistic risk assesment (PRA)?
A quantitive method for evaluating risks of a complex system
Used for low-probability and high-consequence events
Where are Probabilistic Risk Assesment (PRA) typically used?
- Nuclear power industry
- Aerospace
- Space missions
- oil industry
- rail industry
- military
- food industry
- water management
- medical field
What are the advantages of Probabilistic Risk Assesment (PRA)?
- Structured approach facilitates communication about… 1. risk management and cost-benefit analyses
2. identifying the dominant accident scenarios
3. failure modes and interactions between technology/operators - Integrates engineering and psychological/behavioral sciences
- Facilitates ‘an additional tool in safety analysis that improves safety-related decision making’
What are the limitations and concerns with Probabilistic Risk Assesment (PRA)
- Choice of system boundaries (temporal, external, internal)
- Human error probability is difficult to define
- validity of databases, simulations, expert-judgement methods
- innovative thinking and irrational behaviors
- individual differences
- effects of display
- safety culture/organizational & managerial factors (remote factors)
- performance shaping factors (e.g. stress)
- modeling of ‘common causes’ or ‘dependent failures’ is difficult
Describe human error from a proximal to remote view
- Person perspective (person-makes-error, very ‘proximal’)
- HMI/knobs & dials perspective
- Cognitive perspective
- Cultural perspective
- Holistic perspective (human error as a symptom; very ‘remote’)
Describe a few different definitions of human error
- A deviation from accuracy/correctness/target
- Action that fails to meet some implicit or explicit standard
- a human action that exceeds some limit of acceptability
- an out-of-tolerance action
- unwanted variability
What are the ambiguities with the traditional definition of human error?
- How large should a deviation be to be called an error?
- Is a shortcut an error?
- What if (un)wanted outcome occurs much later in time following the interjection of many other actions (and other people)?
Human error: describe the proximal view:
The worker causes the accidents (and we should train/blame/shame him)
Human error: describe the remote view:
The worker works in poor circumstances (and we should improve these circumstances)
What are proximal factors in human error?
- Persons in workspace
- individual responsibility
- “sharp end”
- short history
- downstream factors
- active errors
- frequent
- hard to anticipate
- human error causes accidents
What are remote factors in human error?
- system, organization, regulators, society
- collective responsibility
- “blunt end”
- long history
- upstream factors
- latent errors (conditions)
- rare
- relatively easy to anticipate
- human errors are consequences
Human perspective: what are the consequences of stress?
- Psychological experience (e.g. frustration)
- Long-term consequences for health
- Change in physiology (e.g. increased heart rate, adrenaline, etc)
- Performance deteriorated/reduced efficiency of information processing
What is the definition of error from a HMI perspective?
Error is the result of a mismatch between task demands and human mental and physical capabilities
What is the proximity compatibility principle?
If a task requires high mental processing proximity, there should be a high display proximity.
What is the definition of error from a cognitive perspective?
All those occasions in which a planned sequence of mental or physical activities fails to achieve its desired goal without the intervention of some chance agency
What is the definition of error from a cultural perspective?
Experts agree that safety culture is of high relevance for overall safety within an organization (perhaps even the number one priority)
What is safety culture?
- “The attitudes, beliefs, perceptions and values that employees share in relation to safety”
- It is a construct, an abstract concept (but can be operationalized by means of questionnaires amongst employees, observations, interviews, audits)
- It is stable (changes over multiple years, not on a day-to-day basis)
- It is shared by many people in the organization
- It is revealed in practices on the workfloor
What does hindsight bias mean?
- The inclination to see events that have already occured as being more predictable than they were before they took place
- A cognitive distortion caused by feedback and reconstruction of memory
What are the “advantages” with a proximal view on human error?
- Close to actual casual triggers of accidents
- Administrative & legal convenience (scapegoat)
What are the disadvantages with a proximal view on human error?
- Isolates unsafe acts from context and safety culture
- Neglects recurrent error patterns (same type of errors may keep occurring, regardless of who carries out the task)
- Blaming is often inappropriate (hindsight bias, fundamental attribution error)
What are the disadvantages with a remote view on human error?
- (dangerous) downplay of human fallibility (felbarhet) and individual responsibility
- Remote factors have little causal specificity; conditions are not causes
Simulation involving humans: What is live simulation?
Real people operate real systems
Simulation involving humans: What is virtual simulation?
Real people operate simulated systems
Simulation involving humans: What is constructive simulation?
simulated people operate simulated systems
Describe human sensation
- Distal object stimulates sensory organs by means of energy (e.g. light, sound, warmth)
- sensory organs transduce the stimuli into neural activity (neural impulses), which is sent to the brain
- Low-level biochemical/neurological events
Describe perception
- Attaining awareness or understanding of what is sensed
Which questions does Perception deal with?
- Where is the stimuli?
- What is it? What category does it belong to?
- What is it doing?
- What can I do with it? What can it do to me?
- What’s going on?
Which questions does human sensation deal with?
- Is there something?
- How intense is it?
What is the Rubin vase an exampel of?
Ambigous image (optical illusion):
- The same stimulus is presented, but the viewer makes a mental choice of two interpretations, each of which is valid (ex. vase or two faces)
- The retinal image (i.e. the stimulus/sensation) does not change
- Mental representation (i.e. the percept) does change
What is physical fidelity?
Objective degree of similarity between the simulator and reality. measured using sensors/instruments (no human in the loop)
Give some examples of high physical fidelity
- Flight simulator cockpit that geometrically corresponds to a real cockpit
- Visual image that corresponds to reality in terms of luminance and contrast
- Simulator time delays that match time delays of real system
What is impossible to achieve with physical fidelity
- Sustained linear acceleration
- High luminance (e.g. blinding of the sun)
Describe a simulator with low fidelity
- Description: Simulator that fits on desk
- Field of view: < 120 degrees: monitors or single screen
- Motion base: No
- Haptic feedback: No
- Auditory feedback: low-cost speakers
- Vehicle dynamics: Simple model, or game-based software
- Cost: < 5000 $
Describe a simulator with medium fidelity
- Description: Simulator that fits in lab room
- Field of view: 120 - 180 degrees
- Motion base: No, or a small amplitude motion system
- Haptic feedback: vibrations/active feedback on steering wheel
- Auditory feedback: multiple speakers and subwoofer
- Vehicle dynamics: semi-realistic and customizable for training/research purposes
- Cost: 5000 - 150 000 $
Describe a simulator with high fidelity:
- Description: Simulator that requires special housing and infrastructure
- Field of view: > 180 degrees
- Motion base: Typically >= 6 DOF
- Haptic feedback: Vibration/active feedback on all control interfaces
- Auditory feedback: Surround sound, usually validated with respect to real vehicle
- Vehicle dynamics: Usually validated professional package and in-house developed
- Cost: 150 000 - 30 000 000 $
