First Pass Miss Exam 2 Flashcards
What is the function of cholesterol in the Lo phase?
Lamellar Liquid Ordered Phase
Blocks free rotation around C-C bonds in Lalpha (liquid crystalline)
Blocks van der Waals in Lbeta (gel)
What is the function of the citrate shuttle?
Move acetyl-CoA produced in mitochondria to the cytosol
What enzyme is the opposite function of citrate synthase in the citrate shuttle?
ATP citrate lyase - forms OAA
How does the citrate shuttle produce NADPH?
via malic enzyme in the cytosol, oxidizes and decarboxylates malate to pyruvate, forming NADPH + CO2
Produces 8/14 NAPH for FAS
What are the two allosteric effectors of Acetyl-CoA carboxylase?
positive - Citrate (build fats, high energy charge)
negative - palmitate (enough fats, stop building)
What controls phosphorylation of Acetyl-CoA carboxylase?
+ - insulin
- glucagon, epinephrine, and palmitate which activates AMPK.
Phosphorylation promotes the non-filamentous form which is inactive
What enzyme is a drug target for obesity in fatty acid acyl-transfers?
DAG acyltransferase.
Catalyzes 2,3-DAG to TAG, which allows hepatocytes and enterocytes to mobilize fatty acids into chylomicrons / VLDL
How is propionyl-CoA converted to succinyl-CoA?
It is carboxylated to methylmalonyl-CoA (requires B7), which is epimerized to the L-isomer, and mutated to succinyl-CoA (requires adoB12)
What enzyme is missing in liver which prevents it from using ketone bodies for energy?
Succinyl-Coa:acetoacetate CoA transferase. Makes acetoacetate into acetoacetyl-CoA which is cleaved by beta-thiolase / acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase to 2 acetyl-CoA.
What is the most common FA defect and what does it metabolically cause?
MCAD deficiency. Causes secondary carnitine deficiency. Omega-oxidation occurs which causes dicarboxylic fatty acids and thus metabolic acidosis.
Buildup of octanoic acid (8C) leads to hyperammonemia + mitochondrial damage
What is x-linked adrenoleukodystrophy?
Defected ABCD1 gene which encodes peroxisomal VLCFA transporter, causes accumulation of VLCFA’s which cause CNS and adrenal problems.
What is Zellweger Syndrome / Refsum disease
Autosomal recess disease which prevents normal peroxisome biogenesis, accumulates branched chain fatty acids and causes deafness + blindness. It’s effects also cause X-ALD symptoms.
What is a common branched chain fatty acid?
Phytanic acid
Why is phospholipase A2 (PLA2) important in eicosanoid metabolism?
Typically C2 carries the unsaturated fatty acid, and arachidonic acid is an eicosinoid which is a 4 u.u. PUFA.
C1 carries a fully saturated FA
What is the name of the surfactant?
DPPC - dipalmitoylphosphotidylcholine
What is the primary difference between plasmalogens and phosphoglycerols, and what are two common headgroups?
ether rather than ester bond, and there can be an alkene paired with ether
Head groups: choline + ethanolamine
What are the two pathways which activate phosphatidate with CTP, rather than the headgroup?
Cardiolipin (uses phosphoglycerol head group)
Phosphotidylinositol (uses inositol head group)
If activating the head group first, how is the phosphatidate prepared to accept the CDP-R group?
phosphatidate phosphatase is used to form DAG, before i.e. CDP-choline is added
HOw is phosphatidylserine produced?
serine / ethanolamine are exchanged in transfer reaction between serine / phosphatidylethanolamine.
What is sphingosine?
Serine backbone + palmitate at C1 (C1 = carbon nearest the nitrogen)
What is ceramide?
Sphingosine + N-acyl FA at serine nitrogen (C2 is still open)
What is sphingomyelin?
Phosphocholine at C2
What are cerebrosides and what is its main subclass?
Glycosphingolipid with monosaccharide (glucose / galactose)
Cerebro = only 1
Main subclass: Sulfatide - sulfated galactocerebroside
What are globosides and what are they called when you add NAN sugars?
global = many. Polysaccharide side chains on glycosphingolipids.
Gangliosides - there are many negative charged ganglia in the brain. Have nomenclature for (# nan sugars M,D,T, core sugar sequence)
How are gangliosides formed from ceramide?
Ceramide has sugars added via UDP activation, then NAN branches sugars from CMP activation.
How is mevalonate formed?
Rate-limiting, irreversible first step of cholesterol synthesis.
HMG-CoA Reductase uses 2 NADPH to convert HMG-CoA to mevalonate
What is the purpose of the trans-methylgluconate shunt?
Can convert isopentenyl-PP to HMG CoA and return carbons back to acetyl-CoA if need be
What form of cholesterol can cross the blood-brain-barrier?
Oxysterols which are hydroxylated forms of cholesterol producted by Cytochrome P450
How do you remember the squalene to cholesterol synthesis pathway?
forms Squalene oxide first (30C)
then, LZD (sounds like LSD)
Lanosterol
Zymosterol
Desmosterol ->
7-DHC -> cholesterol
What are the three actions of the liver X receptors, and what do they respond to? Where are they found?
Respond to increasing concentration of oxysterols, found in hepatocytes
- Downregulates SREBPs
- Induces HDL transporters (lower free cholesterol via efflux)
- Stimulate FA synthesis to provide substrate for cholesterol esterification (lowers free concentration)
What is the primary regulator control on HMG-CoA reductase?
Phosphorylation inactivates it - (AMPK under control of glucagon / epi)
Dephosphorylation activates it (PP2A - insulin)
Low cell ATP also stimulates AMPK which turns off HMG-CoA and thus cholesterol synthesis
How do statins work?
Reversible competitive inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase
What must occur to form a bile salt from cholesterol? What are they complex with?
7-alpha hydroxylation + 12-alpha hydroxylation + flipping of 3-alpha hydroxylation stereochemistry and loss of three terminal carbons (makes it 24 carbon instead of 27)
Then complex with glycine or taurine (3:1 ratio, respectively)
What occurs to form secondary bile salts from primary bile salts?
Bacterial conversion in liver, removes 7, 12 alpha hydroxyls + conjugated amino acid
What is the first major step of hormone synthesis from cholesterol?
Cleave 6 carbons off to become only 21 carbon Pregnenole.
Where do most reactions occur in hormone synthesis, and which enzymes are not included in this?
Most occur in smooth ER, a few happen in the mitochondria
- Cholesterol side chain cleavage enzyme (-6 C)
- Aldosterone synthase
- 11-beta hydroxylase
Last two are only involved in glucocorticoid / mineralocorticoid synthesis
What conversions occur to go from progesterone to testosterone / estrogen, broadly?
Progesterone -> testosterone = cleave 2 carbon ketone group off at position 17 (now 19-C)
Testosterone -> estrogen - aromatize the first six-carbonyl ring with hydroxyl at C3 remove methyl at position 10 (now 18-C)
What is the apo-protein of nascent chylomicrons?
Apo B-48
What two apoproteins are donated by HDL to mature chylomicrons?
Apo CII and Apo E
How do chylomicron remnants bind in liver?
LDL receptor, via apoE. The ApoCII is no longer present because it was donated back to HDL
What are the apoproteins of mature vs nascent VLDL?
nascent: Apo B-100
Mature: B100, E, CII (latter two from HDL)
How is LDL formed from VLDL?
Becomes IDL as it loses Apo CII and E, only again having B100 but lost all of its TAGs and increased its cholesterol concentration.
Now binds LDL on periphery or via its B100 as ligand on LDLR in liver
What are the apoproteins of the nascent HDL?
Apo A-I, Apo-CII, Apo-E
How does HDL uptake cholesterol from tissues and hold it?
uses ABCA1 transporter to take up free cholesterol
Free cholesterol turned into cholesterol ester by converting phosphatidylcholine to lyso-PC (lost a FA). Uses PCAT (phosphatidylcholine acyltransferase)
What is the function of CETP?
Cholesterol ester transfer protein, transfers cholesterol esters from HDL2 to VLDL, and TAGS to VLDL to HDL. This makes the VLDL have a higher [cholesterol] to become LDL.
What are the two types of scavenger receptors we care about?
- SR-B1 - binds HDL in liver cells
2. SR-CD36 - binds mLDL (oxidized) in macrophages
Why are HDLs good aside from cholesterol removal, and why do women have more?
Estrogens increase HDL levels
- Increases production of NO - anti-inflammatory
- Free radical scavenging
- Promote integrity of endothelial layer, as well as preventing cell adhesion, aggregation / thrombosis
What does C-reactive protein measure?
It is produced in vascular smooth muscle cells / endothelium + liver in response to pro-inflammatory cytokines.
Measures levels of low-grade inflammation, considered an “acute phase protein”
What amino acids are the main blood carriers of nitrogen and what do they ultimately funnel into?
Glutamine, alanine
Funnel into: Glutamate
What are the two opposing factors in glutamate dehydrogenase and what regulates them?
Catabolic: form NADH by deaminating glutamate to aKG
Anabolic: Use NADPH to reduce imine group of a-KG to Glu intermediate to form aKG
Anabolic: Upregulated with ATP/GTP binding
Catabolic: Upregulated with ADP/GDP binding
What cofactor do transaminations use, and what type of reaction is it?
Vitamin B6: Pyridoxal-6-P. Forms a Schiff base holds NH3 as pyridoxamine and donates to next incoming AA, re-binding to lysine
Reaction type: “Ping pong” reaction
What reactants are common to all transaminases?
All typically use Glu / a-KG as one of the pairs.
What are the two most important transaminases?
Alanine / Aspartate (ALT / AST), common markers of tissue damage
Alanine -> transport NH3 in blood
Aspartate -> give NH3 in urea cycle