Old Age

Question 1

Baltes suggested several definitions of old age

Answer 1

Sociological/familial
Biological
Longevity/demographic 
Cognitive
Institutional

Question 2

Stages of old age

Answer 2

Young-old (60-69)
Third-age adults (70-79)
Fourth-age adults (80-89)
Old-old (90+)

Question 3

Ageism

Answer 3

Prejudice/discrimination based on age
Most apparent in old age
Can be externally or internally imposed

Question 4

Healthy ageing vs age denial in 76+ years (Palmore, 2007)

Answer 4

Healthy ageing practices:
Regular exercise (77%)
Dieting for health reasons (30%)
Avoiding tobacco (87%)
Age denial practices:
Anti-ageing medications (1%)
Cosmetic surgery to look younger (2%)
Botox (0%)
Hair colouring to look younger (10%)

Question 5

Cross-cultural differences (old age)

Answer 5

Differences in value systems influence views on ageing and old age
Traditional aboriginal Australian culture promotes social status with increasing age (community elder have highest social status)
Ability (physical and cognitive) is also considered in the advancement towards community elder status (promotes healthy ageing)

Question 6

Biological ageing

Answer 6

GRADUAL decline in functioning of physiological systems
Hair
Skin
Veins and arteries
Muscles
Hormones
Bones
Teeth
Sense organs

Question 7

Psychological impacts of biological ageing

Answer 7

Biological ageing impacts on psychological well-being:
Perceived competency/self-perceived usefulness
Self-esteem
Agency/self-control
Mood/stress

Question 8

Neurocognitive ageing

Answer 8

Gradual decline in brain volume
Increased ventricle size (fluid filled areas/cavities)
Accelerated loss of brain cells
Decreased neural conduction speed (decreasing reaction time)
Neuroplasticity remains

Question 9

Explaining biological ageing: disease theories

Answer 9

Autoimmune theory: body’s own immune system triggers ageing by treating the body’s own cells as disease agents
Genetic-disease theory: particular genes responsible for ageing

Question 10

Explaining biological ageing: homeostasis

Answer 10

Gradual decline in homeostatic control leads to ageing and eventual death
Illness throughout life may reduce the capacity of this system, leading to premature death

Question 11

Explaining biological ageing: cellular theories

Answer 11

Hayflick limit: pre-determined maximum limit on the life-span of a cell

Free-radicals explanation: ageing is cause by cumulative damage cause by free radicals (molecules with single unpaired electrons which attack other molecules to steal electrons)

Question 12

Explaining biological ageing: environmental insult theories

Answer 12

Wear and tear: regular bodily insults from external environment result in ageing

Radiation theory: gradual exposure to radiation throughout life results in ageing. This is accelerated in highly radioactive environments

Question 13

Cognitive ageing: memory

Answer 13

Old age is often associated with memory declines.
However, forgetfulness is reported in a minority of people over 55
Lab based assessment shows gradual decline in memory performance with age:
May be due to decreased motivation
Use of memorisation strategies may explain declines in performance
Overly cautious approaches are adopted by older adults in memorisation tasks
Decreased self-efficacy/confidence

Question 14

Memory: life review

Answer 14

Tendency to talk about, think about the past as a way of making sense of life
Requires conflict resolution through an evaluation of the past
Successful evaluation results in an integration of the life review into the sense of self
Unsuccessful evaluation is no integration of the life review into the sense of self and results in anxiety or depression
Effects of life review are overwhelmingly positive (encouraged as a therapeutic tool)

Question 15

Successful cognitive ageing

Answer 15

Losses in multiple biological systems impact on functioning
Baltes argues that cognitive adaptation can limit these losses in function:
‘Selective optimisation with compensation’
Increased selectivity in the number of ‘high-efficiency domains’
Account for losses in reserve capacity through the development of compensatory mechanisms/strategies

Question 16

What is old age?

Answer 16

65+ years of age

No clear chronological boundary, is considered a subjective state of mind

Question 17

Successful social ageing

Answer 17

Successful ageing involves continued psychological growth and development
Being socially responsible and interested in others is important for ‘successful’ ageing (involves being compassionate, caring and responsive to others)
Capacity to accept change is also vital (too much of this may result in apathy, resignation, learned helplessness)

Question 18

Disengagement theory

Answer 18

First proposed by Cumming and Henry (1961)
Healthy old age involves deliberately cutting off from other people, social roles and active concern for other
Controversial theory

Question 19

Disengagement theory: three central defining components

Answer 19

1. Disengagement is normative (do disengage)
2. Disengagement is mutually desirable by old people and by society (want to disengage)
3. Disengagement produces changes in thought patterns (need to disengage)

Question 20

1. Disengagement is normative (do disengage)

Answer 20

Old people voluntarily disengage from active social roles, severing emotional ties and moving out of career and leisure roles

Question 21

2. Disengagement is mutually desirable by old people and by society (want to disengage)

Answer 21

Disengagement is internal to the old person as part of normal and natural process of social ageing.

Question 22

3. Disengagement produces changes in thought patterns (need to disengage)

Answer 22

Individual’s inner dynamics, cognitions, emotions, and social thought patterns undergo changes.
As older people take less interest in social activities, their social skills diminish through disuse.

Question 23

Critiquing disengagement theory

Answer 23

The process described by disengagement theory may not be restricted to effects of ageing
Same process of disengagement is seen in terminally ill patients and unemployed people
Criticised for condoning discrimination based on age (ageism)
Limited evidence of cross-cultural applicability

Question 24

Activity theory

Answer 24

Continued socialisation, role commitment and involvement with people is important for successful ageing
If one role is lost, it requires replacement (new role should be equally socially demanding)
Social disengagement is an adverse response to ageism and social exclusion

Question 25

Activity vs disengagement

Answer 25

Both assume that there is an ideal pattern of ageing

Do old people disengage? Should they?

Question 26

Do people disengage?

Answer 26

Complete disengagement is uncommon
No consistent evidence of social disengagement. But nature of social interactions change (eg church, community service, group recreational activity)

Question 27

Should old people disengage?

Answer 27

Disengagement results in decreased satisfaction with life

Question 28

Personality continuity theory

Answer 28

Compromise between disengagement and activity theories
Individual differences in confronting old age reflect individual differences when facing challenges earlier in life
(Individual personality variation determines pattern of disengagement be activity)

Question 29

Optimal social ageing

Answer 29

Both activity theory and disengagement theory are correct 
Integrated adults
Armoured-defended adults
Passive-dependent adults 
Disorganised adults

Question 30

Integrated adults

Answer 30

Demonstrate high levels of satisfaction

Included those who were highly socially active and those who were almost completely disengaged

Question 31

Armoured-defended adults

Answer 31

High activity but in a state of denial with no realistic planning

Question 32

Passive-dependent adults

Answer 32

Poor adjustment with a heavy reliance on others

Question 33

Disorganised adults

Answer 33

Poorest adjustment with mental and emotional disturbance

Question 34

Socioemotional selectivity theory

Answer 34

A shrinking future results in the prioritising of particular relationships:
‘Social pruning’
Results in a changing social network, consisting of narrower but deeper connections
Inspired to Baltes’ S-O-C theory:
E.g. Become more selective in relationships

Question 35

Personality and adjustment in old age

Answer 35

Self-concept and feelings of personal control influence successful ageing
Subjective age self-concept influences rate of physical decline in old age:
Those who don’t mind getting old have best physical outcomes in old age
Ageism impacts on self-concept
Sense of personal control:
Perceived ability to influence the external world
Perceived personal control predicts longevity

Question 36

Integrity crisis

Answer 36

Erikson’s final dialectical conflict: integrity vs despair
The need to attack meaning to our own lives
Conflict between a desire to believe that earlier life choice were right vs a sense of despair over mistakes or missed opportunities
A sense of integrity or life meaning is the goal of this dialectical conflict:
Life review may facilitate resolution
Ageism makes successful resolution difficult