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Anatomy and Physiology I > Chapter 2: The Chemistry of Life > Flashcards

Chapter 2: The Chemistry of Life Flashcards

1
Q

What is an element?

A

The simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties. Cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means. There are 91 naturally occuring elements (atoms are building blocks)

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2
Q

What are the elements that make up 98.5% of human body weight?

A
  • Oxygen (O)
  • Carbon (C)
  • Hydrogen (H)
  • Nitrogen (N)
  • Calcium (Ca)
  • Phosphorus (P)
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3
Q

What are the lesser and trace elements and minerals that make up the human body?

A

Lesser elements (.0.8%): Na, K, Cl, S, Fe

Trace Elements (less than 0.7%): required in minute amounts, found as part of enzymes (I, Fe, metals)

Minerals (about 4%): usually salts, inorganic elements extracted from soil by plants and passed to humans (Ca, P mostly, also Cl, Mg, K, Na, and S)

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4
Q

What determines the atomic number v. the atomic mass? What is an isotope (in relation)?

A

Atomic number: number of protons (Hydrogen has 1, Carbon has 6, Oxygen has 8), unique to each element

Atomic mass / weight: number of neutrons + number of protons

Isotope: element with can have atoms with a different number of neutrons (but the same number of protons)(some isotopes of Hydrogen are Hydrogen-0 neutron, Deutirium-1 neutron, and Tritium-2 neutron)

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5
Q

What is atomic weight?

A

The average of mass numbers for an element.

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6
Q

What is the overall structure of an atom?

A

***

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7
Q

Define the following: ions, ionization

A

Ion: charged particle with unequal number of protons and electrons

Ionization: transfer of electrons from one atom to another

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8
Q

What are electrolytes and why are they important?

A

Electrolytes: substances that ionize in water (acids, bases, or salts) form solutions capable of coducting electric currents

They are important in chemical reactivity, osmotic effects, electrical excitability of nerve and muscle. Imbalance can lead to coma or cardiac arrest.

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9
Q

What are free radicals?

A

Short lived particles with an unusual number of electrons. Produced by metabolic reactions, radiation, and certain chemicals. Trigger reactions that destroy molecules (can cause cancer, death of heart tissue, and aging…)

Fought by antioxidants, which neutralize free radicals (some are in the body, some can be obtained through diet).

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10
Q

What is a molecule?

A

A chemical particle composed of two or more atoms united by a chemical bond.

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11
Q

What is a compound?

A

Molecule composed of two or more elements.

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12
Q

What is the octet rule?

A

Bonds are formed using electrons in the valence shell (outermost layer). Atoms interact in order to have 8 electrons in their valence shell.

Examples: Inert element won’t react (full shell). Hydrogen has 1 (will give it up), Carbon has 4 (wants 4 more), Oxygen has 6 (wants 2 more), Sodium has 1 (gets rid of it, next layer has 8)

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13
Q

What is distinction between intra and inter?

A

Intra: inside/within

Inter: between

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14
Q

What is a mixture and how does it apply to the human body?

A

Mixtures are physically blended but not chemically combinded. Body fluids are complex mixtures. The human body is 50 to 75% water (babies have more water–cartilage, men have more water, women have less-more adipose)

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15
Q

What are the properties of water?

A
  • solvency (ability to dissolve other chemicals)
  • cohesion (surface tension!)
  • adhesion
  • chemical reactivity
  • thermal stability (water absorbs heat)
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16
Q

What does / does not dissolve in water?

A

Does: hydrophilic compounds, polar molecules, ionic compounds

Does not: oils, fats, waxes, lipids, nonpolar molecules, hydrophobic compounds

17
Q

What are the 3 major mixtures in the body?

A
  • Solution: solutes small and dissolved in solvent, usually clear (e.g. urine)
  • Colloid: solutes larger (scatter light), but don’t settle out (e.g. milk)
  • suspension: solutes large and will settle out (emulsion is a suspension of one liquid in another)
  • Example: blood (solution is electrolytes, colloid is plasma proteins, suspension is red blood cells)
18
Q

Define the following: acid, base, salt

A

Acid: A substance that dissociates in solution to produce hydrogen ions (H+). Proton donor.

Base: a substance that dissociates in a solution to yield cations and hydroxide ions (OH-).

Salt: a substance that dissociates in solution producing cations and anions, but not hydrogen or hydroxide ions.

19
Q

What are the acid/base concentration numbers on the pH scale?

A

Acidic (more and more hydrogen): pH 0-6.99

Neutral: pH 7

Basic (less and less hydrogen, more hydroxide): pH 7.01-14

Buffers are built to prevent large changes in pH.

20
Q

Define energy (and its types) and work.

A

Energy: capacity to do work

  • potential energy: stored in an object, but not currently doing work
    • chemical: in molecular/chemical bonds
    • free: available in a system to do useful work
  • kinetic: energy of motion, doing work
    • heat: kinetic energy of motion
    • electromagnetic energy: moving packets of radiation called photons

Work: to move

21
Q

What are the definition and classes of chemical reactions?

A

Chemical reaction: a process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken. (Chemical equation symbolizes the course–reactants / arrow (enzyme?) / products)

  • decomposition (large molecule breaks down into two or more smaller ones, e.g. hydrolysis)
  • synthesis (two or more molecules combine, e.g. dehydration synthesis)
  • exchange (two molecules exhange atoms or groups of atoms)
22
Q

What are reversible reactions?

A

Reactions that can go either way under different circumstances. Reach equilibrium when ratio of products to reactants is stable.

23
Q

What causes reaction rates to increase?

A
  • high concentration
  • temperature rises
  • a catalyst (enzyme) is present
24
Q

Explain metabolism and its substrates as chemical reactions

A
  • Metabolism: all chemical reactions of the body
  • Catabolism: decomposition (breaks covalent bonds)
  • Anabolism: energy storing synthesis reactions (requires energy input, production of protein or fat)
    • Link: anabolism is driven by energy released by catabolism
25
Q

What are oxidation and reduction?

A

Oxidation: a chemical reaction in which a molecule gives up electrons and releases energy

Reduction: a chemical reaction in which a molecule gains electrons and energy

Oxidation / Reduction reactions: oxidation of one molecule is always accompanied by reduction of another

26
Q

What are carbohydrates and their sizes?

A
  • a hydrophilic organic molecule
  • Primary function is energy
  • General formula: CH2On (n= number of carbon atoms), Glucose is C6H12O6
  • 3 sizes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
27
Q

Name some examples of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides

A

Mono: glucose (blood sugar), galactose, and fructose, produced by digestion of complex carbs–need opposite enzyme ending in “ase”

Di: sucrose (table sugar, glucose+fructose), lactose (milk sugar, glucose+galactose), maltose (grain sugar, glucose+glucose)

Poly: glycogen (a glucose polymer stored in liver and skeletal muscles), starch (energy in plants, digestible), cellulose (in plants, indigestible, becomes fiber)

28
Q

What are fatty acids?

A
  • Chains of 4-24 carbon atoms with carboxyl group on one end and methly group on the other
29
Q

What are some properties of triglycerides?

A
  • (neutral fats)
  • some are oils (liquid at room temperature) and some fats (solid at room temperature)
  • function in energy storage
  • 2x more energy than carbs or proteins
  • Insulation and padding
  • Slippery, lubricant
30
Q

What is the structure of a phospholipid?

A

Amphipathic: it is a molecule with polar and nonpolar parts

  • head is polar
  • tails are nonpolar
31
Q

What are steroids?

A
  • A type of lipid (17 of its carbon atoms arranged in 4 rings)
  • Most hormones are steroid based
  • Cholesterol: the parent steroid from which other steroids are synthesized
  • Other steroids: cortisol, progesterone, estrogens, testosterone, and bile acids
32
Q

What are proteins?

A
  • a polymer of amino acids
  • peptide: molecule composed of two or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds
    • dipeptides, tripeptides, oligopeptides (10-15), polypeptides (more than 15), and proteins (more than 50)
  • amino acid: central carbon with 3 attachments
    • amino group, carboxyl group, and radical group
    • 20 amino acids make thousands of combinations
33
Q

What are enzymes and substrates?

A
  • proteins that function as biological catalysts (permit reactions to occur at normal body temperature)–they lower activation energy
    • named for substrate with -ase as suffix (e.g. maltose and maltrase)
  • the substrate is the substance the enzyme acts upon
34
Q

How does an enzyme work?

A
  • substrate approaches enzyme’s active site
  • molecules bind together and form enzyme-substrate complex
  • lock and key: e.g. only maltrase can work with maltose
  • enzyme releases products, enzyme is unchanged and can repeat process over and over
35
Q

What are nucleic acids?

A
  • organic compounds (hydrophilic) with a single or double carbon-nitrogen ring (nitrogenous base-adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, or uracil), a monosaccharide (ribose or deoxyribose), and one or more phosphate groups
  • Nucleic acids are DNA, RNA, and ATP
36
Q

What are the functions of DNA and RNA?

A

DNA

  • constitute genes
  • have instructions for synthesizing proteins

RNA

  • Messenger / ribosomal / transfer
  • carry out genetic instrucitons for synthesizing proteins
  • assemble amino acids in correct order to produce proteins
37
Q

What is the structure and function of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)?

A
  • made of only 1 nucleotide
  • made of adenine, ribose, and 3 phosphate groups
    • 2 phosphates is ADP, one is AMP
    • when a phosphate breaks off, energy is released
  • Energy transfer, energy storage
  • Releases energy through hydrolysis (need enzyme ATPase)
  • Stores energy through dehydration synthesis (need enzyme ATP synthase)
38
Q

What are the major extracellular and intracellular cations and anions?

A
  • Extracellular: anion is chloride, cation is sodium (outside is SALTY)
  • Intracellular: anion is phosphate, cation is potassium (bananas are happy and positive!)

Anatomy and Physiology I (19 decks)

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