Chapter 1: Morrissey & Reddy (2015)

Question 1

Why are ethical decisions so tricky for psychologists?

Answer 1

what a psych does judged by:
- what is acceptable in a MORAL sense

• what is considered acceptable PROFESSIONALLY
• what is defensible in LAW

Question 2

Ethics is more than what the profession and law determine to be acceptable practice, it also involves what?

Answer 2

“The philosophical study of good conduct” (Ross, 193)

Question 3

What does an ethical theory/position allow for?

Answer 3

An account of ethical thought and practice that allows for testing the correctness of theoretical principles that the theory is based on

Question 4

Why is making decisions about what is morally good or bad, right or wrong, so challenging for psychologists?

Answer 4

None of the professional code of ethics contains a clearly articulated philosophical framework for professional decision making and action.

Question 5

Why has psychology struggled to come up with an overarching philosophical perspective?

Answer 5

• Privately psychologists might not embrace a single philosophical standpoint on how they should practice - people cannot be coerced into adopting a specific philosophical position
• few courses in psychology offer formal training in moral philosophy
• discrepancy between what psychologists say they should do and what they actually do - conversion of reasoning into action is subjective
• Philosophical reasoning must be situationally responsive - sensitive to variations in circumstances

Question 6

If a philosophical framework is going to have heuristic value it needs to:

Answer 6

• allow the psych to weigh up what the profession determines to be good practice
• what the law requires
• what is the morally good or right thing to do
• what is the good or right thing to do in the particular circumstances

Question 7

What does being an ethical psychologist mean?

Answer 7

• Behaving in moral acceptable manner “good conduct”
• Behaving a way acceptable to the profession
• Behaving a way acceptable to the law

Question 8

What do ethical, principle, rights and responsibilities mean across the context of different philosophical frameworks?

Answer 8

These terms take on different meanings in different philosophical frameworks

Question 9

What are the four main moral theories?

Answer 9

• CONSEQUENTIALISM (telelogical):
• Actions are right or wrong by virtue of their consequences.
• What is right will produce the greatest net benefit
• includes utilitarian principle - greatest balance of good over evil/balance of value over disvalue
• DEONTOLOGICAL approach (Kantian):
• Actions are right or wrong in themselves regardless of consequences.
• Right actions are defined in terms of justice/rights and fairness.
• Right actions are those that would be prescribed as general law that treat people as ends (not means).
• NORMATIVE RELATIVISM
• An action is right or wrong if some person or group decrees it so
• CLASSICAL VIRTUE THEORY (Agent centred)
• Right actions require the exercise of good character and are not determined by consequences or the nature of actions themselves

Question 10

What is CONSEQUENTIALISM / teleogical

Answer 10

• Actions are right or wrong by virtue of their consequences.
• What is right will produce the greatest net benefit
• includes utilitarian principle - greatest balance of good over evil/balance of value over disvalue

Question 11

What is the *DEONTOLOGICAL approach (Kantian)?

Answer 11

• Actions are right or wrong in themselves regardless of consequences.
• Right actions are defined in terms of justice/rights and fairness.
• Right actions are those that would be prescribed as general law that treat people as ends (not means).

Question 12

What is *NORMATIVE RELATIVISM?

Answer 12

• An action is right or wrong if some person or group decrees it so

Question 13

What is * CLASSICAL VIRTUE THEORY (Agent centered)?

Answer 13

• CLASSICAL VIRTUE THEORY (Agent centred)
• Right actions require the exercise of good character and are not determined by consequences or the nature of actions themselves

Question 14

Are there objective moral properties?

Answer 14

• Some meta-analytical perspectives believe there are objective moral properties:
  
  • realism
  • naturalism
  • non-naturalism

Some are unsure:
- scepticism

Some do not believe that there are objective moral properties:

• emotivisim
• meta-ethical realism
• nihilism

Question 15

Broadly, what do theories of meta-ethics suggest?

Answer 15

That right actions:

• fufill most pressing obligations
• reflect most relevant social norms
• result in greatest wellbeing
• are motivated by virtuous character

Question 16

What does prima facie duty mean?

Answer 16

Conditional duty - Ross (1930) considered all duty was conditional

Question 17

What does Ross’ Prima Facie theory distinguish between?

Answer 17

• Rightness and wrongness: refers to things done (acts regardless of motive - what is right)
• Goodness and badness: refers to actions and therefore involve judgement concerning motives that give rise to an action (what is morally right)

Question 18

What does the distinction between goodness and rightness imply:

Answer 18

A morally good action need not be the doing of a right act…
And the doing of a right act need not be a morally good action

Question 19

What does Ross’ Prima Facie theory imply for psychologists?

Answer 19

Helps us distinguish between:

• knowledge of a morally good principle
• a wrong act

Question 20

Whats an example of Ross’ Prima Facie goodness principle?

Answer 20

Promising to keep information confidential.

Contrary act would be breaching confidentiality in order to prevent harm.

Question 21

What is the the judgement about GOODNESS/BADNESS of psychologists about?

Answer 21

A judgement about the motives that underpin the actions

Question 22

What is the judgement about the RIGHTNESS/WRONGNESS about?

Answer 22

A judgement about the whether the act fufills the psychologists prima facie duty or duties to the client.

Question 23

What is Ross’ definition of “right acts” according to the Prima Facie theory?

Answer 23

…not those that OUGHT to occur because
they are based on a perfect obligation to act in that particular manner,

are based on a consideration of
all the moral ramifications of acting in a particular situation

AND which result in the discharge in one way or another of one’s prima facie duties relevant to the situation”

Question 24

Ross acknowledges the coexistence of moral duties, what does this mean?

Answer 24

Psychologists are likely to have a variety of competing responsibilities to clients and other parties - including competing claims, rights, and duties

Question 25

How will psychologists know exactly what their responsibilities to their client and other parties entail?

Answer 25

The rights and responsibilities of clients, the psychologist, and other parties should be contained in the negotiated contract with the client and other parties of the service - should be documented carefully on ongoing basis
- E.g. outlining service length, frequency, cost, limits to confidentiality, rights of access to records etc.

Question 26

What are the Prima Facie duties outlined by Ross?

Answer 26

• Fidelity: keeping a promise (e.g. confidentiality)
• Reparation
• Gratitude
• Justice
• Beneficence: making a person’s condition better
• Self improvement (e.g. maintaining competence)
• Non-maleficence: not doing harm

Question 27

According to Prima Facie duties & Ross, what recommends the chosen course of action?

Answer 27

The extent to which it brings good things into existence rather than not bringing good things into existence

Question 28

What did Ross think was more important:

• non-maleficence (not doing harm) OR
• beneficence (making a person’s condition better)

Answer 28

Non-maleficence (not doing harm)

Question 29

Ethical dilemma - psychologist promises to to write a letter to client’s employer but letter never arrives. What would Ross’ theory say about this?

Answer 29

The Psychologist has failed to discharge that duty to the client and thus has acted wrongly regardless of whether the letter was posted.

“Success and failure are the only test, and a sufficient test, of a performance of a duty”

Question 30

THE JUDGEMENT ABOUT THE RIGHTNESS OR WRONGNESS OF A SPECIFIC ACT IS A JUDGEMENT ABOUT WHETHER THE ACT FULFILLS THE PSYCHOLOGISTS PRIMA FACIE DUTY/ OR DUTIES TO CLIENT (regardless of motives) - true or false?

Answer 30

True

Question 31

What are the steps in ethical reasoning?

Answer 31

How should I act toward a party?
- How should I act toward that party in virtue of other duties I tend to have to that party?
- How should I act in virtue of my duties to other parties who may be involved?
- How should I act when no longer able to fulfil a prima facie duty to a party because that duty requires me to act in a way
that is incompatible with another duty?
- What other relevant circumstances influence my decision
- How will I act?
- Under changed circumstances, how should I now act?

Question 32

What does Ross’ Prima Facie theory say about keeping promises (fidelity)?

Answer 32

Psychologists above all should keep promises they make to all parties to a service, including clients, other parties and themselves.