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BIOARCHAEOLOGY > Bones, teeth & genes > Flashcards

Bones, teeth & genes Flashcards

1
Q

What fields does the American system split anthropology into?

A

Ethnology, linguistics, archaeology and biological anthropology

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2
Q

What is “the great chain of being”?

A

The belief that God’s creation followed a plan and that humans were the highest form - this was permanent and unchanging.

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3
Q

Who created the original taxonomic classification system?

A

Linnaeus

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4
Q

When was On the origin of species published?

A

1859

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5
Q

What is neo-Darwinism?

A

A combination of Darwin’s theories with modern understandings of genetics

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6
Q

How are old world monkeys classified?

A

Cattarhines

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7
Q

How are new world monkeys classified?

A

Platyrrhines

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8
Q

When did the first hominins appear?

A

During the miocene, about 6mya

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9
Q

What is a hominin?

A
  • All great apes

- Large brain, bipedal and toolmaking

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10
Q

What does the term derived mean?

A

Different from what was before

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11
Q

What are the most widely dispersed early African hominins known as?

A

The Australopiths

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12
Q

What are the major features of Australopiths?

A
  • Small brains
  • Bipedal
  • Large teeth
  • Lost 1st premolar
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13
Q

When did hominins begin to move out of Africa?

A

2 mya

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14
Q

When has the oldest Homo erectus fossil been dated to?

A

1.7 mya

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15
Q

What era is usually associated with modern humans?

A

The upper palaeolitic

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16
Q

What is Chatelperronian?

A

The idea that Neanderthals may have copied modern human tool use

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17
Q

What is the regional continuity model?

A

The idea that humans evolved independantly in each region

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18
Q

What is the complete replacement model?

A

The idea that hominin migration from Africa led to complete replacement of other species in other areas.

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19
Q

What is the partial replacement model?

A

The idea that hominins expanded out of Africa and interbred with premodern humans leading to assimilation of DNA

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20
Q

What did Adam Smith suggest?

A 
That societies pass through stages:
Hunting & gathering
Pastoralism 
Nomadism
Agriculturalism
Commerce
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21
Q

How did Georges Louis Leclerc define species?

A

Groups of organisms that could reproduce offspring that resemble parents

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22
Q

When was on the origin of species written?

A

1859

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23
Q

How many finch species did Darwin discover on the Galápagos Islands?

A

13

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24
Q

What are the 3 stages of evolutionary development as suggested by Tylor?

A

Savagery
Barbarism
Civilisation

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25
Q

What are the 3 parts to Darwins theory of evolution?

A

Struggle for existence
Variation
Inheritance

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26
Q

When are the earliest primates dated to?

A

Palaeocene (65-56mya) - The plesiadapiforms

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27
Q

What do primates from the Eocene display?

A

Distinctive primate features.

E.g. Teeth & flat fingernails

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28
Q

In what era are several species of anthropoids attributed to?

A

Oligocene (33-23mya)

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29
Q

What do hominin a encompass?

A 
All great apes. 
Name for members of the tribe hominini 
Bipedal
Large brains
Toolmaking
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30
Q

What are the advantages of bipedalism?

A
  1. Freed the hands for carrying objects and making tools
  2. Wider visual field
  3. Efficient way of covering large distances
  4. Temperature regulation
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31
Q

What structural and anatomical changes occurred with the hominins?

A
  1. pelvis becomes shorter and broader
  2. Elongated legs
  3. Forensic magnum underneath the skull
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32
Q

When was Australopithecus Africanus first discovered and by whom?

A

1924 by Raymond Dart

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33
Q

When did hominins first begin to move out of Africa?

A

2mya

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34
Q

What is the species name given to Homo in Africa?

A

Homo ergaster (may simply be geographical variation rather than a different species to homo erectus

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35
Q

What is a grade?

A

A grouping of organisms sharing similar adaptive patterns

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36
Q

How many glacial advances occurred in Europe during the Pleistocene?

A

15 major

50 minor

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37
Q

What characterises homo naledi?

A
  1. Curved finger bones
  2. Small brain
  3. Human like teeth
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38
Q

Where does obsidian come from?

A

Volcanoes

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39
Q

What are the 4 types of Flint knapping?

A
  1. Hard hammer percussion
  2. Soft hammer percussion
  3. Indirect percussion
  4. Pressure flaking
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40
Q

Who came up with the modal system of classification in 1977?

A

Clark

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41
Q

What is relative dating?

A

Placing something in a sequence but to tied to a certain time

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42
Q

What is absolute dating?

A

Determining the time period to which something belongs

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43
Q

What methods are used in relative dating?

A 
Architectural styles
Stratigraphy
Typology and seriation
Biostratigraphy 
Pollen sequences
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44
Q

What methods are used in absolute dating?

A 
Historical sources
Writing
Coins
Marine and ice cores
Glacial carve sediments
Dendrochronology
Amino acid racemization 
Obsidian hydration
Paleomagnetism 
Tephrachronology
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45
Q

What radio metric dating methods are used?

A 
Potassium-argon dating
Uranium series dating
Luminescence dating
Electron spin resonance
Radiocarbon dating
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46
Q

What is a genotype?

A

A particular combination of genes or alleles that an individual carries

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47
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

The observable characteristics of an organism

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48
Q

How many amino acid molecules are there?

A

20

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49
Q

What infraorders are the Strepsirrhines divided into?

A

Lemuriformes and Lorisiformes

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50
Q

What infraorders are the Haplorrhines divided into?

A

Tarsiiformes, Platyrrhini and Catarrhini

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51
Q

What belongs to the Catarrhines?

A

Old world monkeys & apes and humans

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52
Q

What is included in the superfamily Hominoidea?

A

Hylobatidae (gibbons) and Hominidae (orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, humans)

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53
Q

What is potassium-Argon dating used for?

A

Dating the age of volcanic rocks found in association with fossils.

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54
Q

How does potassium-Argon dating work?

A

Argon gas is boiled out of the rock when it emerges from a volcano, this means any argon present must be due to the decay of potassium, which has a known half-life.

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55
Q

How does carbon-14 dating work?

A

When an organism is alive, C14:C12 is the same as in the atmosphere, but after death C14 decays into N14 at a known rate.

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56
Q

How does thermoluminescence dating work?

A

Heatng a rock relaxes the bonds that hold the atoms in a crystal lattice together, which means the trapped electrons can be recaptured by their atoms, this process gives off light.

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57
Q

How does electron-spin-resonance dating work?

A
  • Used to age apatite crystals in tooth enamel.
    Initially, these crystals contain no trapped electrons but when the teeth are subjected to a variable magnetic field, it is possible to estimate how many years its been since the tooth was formed.
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58
Q

What are angiosperms?

A

Flowering plants that spread during the cretaceous

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59
Q

What are gymnosperms?

A

Trees like pine, redwood and fir that dominated the mesozoic.

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60
Q

When was the Miocene epoch?

A

Between 23mya and 5mya

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61
Q

What was the climate during the Miocene?

A

It became warmer and Europe was dominated by evergreens.

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62
Q

What happened to the climate during the middle miocene?

A

Gradual cooling

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63
Q

When did the last common ancestor of humans, gorillas and cimpanzees live?

A

9-8mya

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64
Q

When did the last common ancestor of chimpanzees live?

A

7-5mya

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65
Q

It makes sense that the last common ancestor of chimps and humans would come from Africa as this is where the earliest hominin fossils are found. Why did this logic not fit until recently?

A

Late miocene apes had only been found in European sites until recently.

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66
Q

What features distinguish modern humans from other living hominoids?

A
  1. Bipedalism
  2. Larger brain
  3. Slower development
  4. Smaller canines
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67
Q

What is the earliest known hominin?

A

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

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68
Q

When was Sahelanthropus discovered?

A

2002

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69
Q

How many species are there in the genus Ardipithecus? And where were they found?

A
  1. Ar. Kadabba (5.8-5.2mya) and Ar. ramidus (4.4mya).

Ethiopia

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70
Q

Dentally, Ar. ramidus is similar to what? Which suggests what kind of diet?

A

Chimpanzees. Frugivorus

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71
Q

How can we tell that Ardipithecus was bipedal?

A

4 toes were apapted for bipedality, along with the pelvis which is much shorter and broader than chimpanzees.

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72
Q

There are several explanations for the evolution of bipedalism. What are they?

A
  • Bipedalism first evolved among arboreal miocene apes as a feeding adaptation and was retained.
  • Bipedalism allows harvesting from trees
  • Cooling mechanism
  • Hands free to carry things
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73
Q

How many species are included in Australopithecus?

A
  1. Au. anamensis, Au. afarensis, Au. africanus, Au. garhi, Au. sediba
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74
Q

How many species of paranthropus are there?

A
  1. P. aethiopicus, P. robustus, P. boisei
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75
Q

How many species of Kenyanthropus are there?

A
  1. K. platyops pp.248
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76
Q

What is the main aim of geometric morphometrics?

A

To explore shape variability in organisms using multivariate statistical tools. It uses Cartesian geometric coordinates rather than linear, areal, or volumetric variables

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77
Q

Plotted points when using geometric morphometrics represent what?

A

landmarks, curves, outlines or surfaces

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78
Q

How can geometric morphometrics be applied to mutations?

A

It can be used to analyse the effect of a certain mutation on the shape of an organism or part of an organism.

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79
Q

What is the half-life of Carbon-14?

A

5730 +/- 40 years

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80
Q

What is isotope fractionation?

A

A process which results in a change in the relative proportions of the isotopes compared to the initial proportions of the substrates.

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81
Q

Which isotopes are studied in researching past diets?

A

C12, C13, N14, N15

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82
Q

What values are studied when distinguishing C3 and C4 plants?

A

delta C13

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83
Q

What photosynthesis pathway normally occurs in the ocean?

A

C3

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84
Q

How much of the nitrogen atoms in the biosphere is made up of N14?

A

99.64%

85
Q

Why are C3 and C4 plants indistinguishable using nitrogen values?

A

Plants grown in a similar area acquire similar N15 values

86
Q

When is Maize believed to have entered the human diet?

A

Late woodland period (AD 1000-1300)

87
Q

Why might marine diets be confused with those rich in maize?

A

The delta 13C values are fairly similar in these diets.

88
Q

Why are delta N15 values more positive than those in oceans?

A

More denitrification occurs in oceans than soil

89
Q

What isotopes are used for studying migration?

A

Sr84, Sr86, Sr87, Sr88

90
Q

How is Sr87 formed?

A

By the radioactive decay of rubidium-87

91
Q

How many stable isotopes does Oxygen have?

A
  1. O16, O17, O18
92
Q

Which oxygen isotope is most abundant?

A

O16

93
Q

How can Oxygen isotopes be used to display geographical patterning?

A

O18/O16 ratios in rainwater vary by region

94
Q

How are isotope ratios measured?

A

Isotope ratio mass spectrometry

95
Q

Which strontium isotope is most abundant?

A

Sr88

96
Q

What does a high frequency of lactase persistence indicate?

A

A population that incorporates dairy into its diet which can be used to infer when dairying was first adopted.

97
Q

Why is DNA important in biomolecular archaeology?

A
  1. Identifying sex
  2. Lactase persistence
  3. Identifying plant domestication
  4. Species identification of animal bones
  5. Species identification of pathogens to understand prevalence of disease
  6. Ancestry
98
Q

Which bases are purines?

A

adenine and guanine

99
Q

Which bases are pyrimidines?

A

Cytosine and thymine

100
Q

What is the maximum number of base pairs that can normally be obtained from ancient DNA?

A

300

101
Q

What are blocking lesions?

A

chemical modifications that block the progress of Taq DNA polymerase and prevent ancient DNA replication (this may lead to the death of a cell in a living organism)

102
Q

What is a karyotype?

A

The organisation of DNA in chromosomes

103
Q

Why does ancient DNA yield more mitochondrial DNA than nuclear?

A

mtDNA is more abundant than nuclear DNA i ancient DNA

104
Q

When were efforts first made to sequence the human genome and when was it done?

A

1990 and 2001

105
Q

What are triplets of nucleotides called?

A

Codons

106
Q

What is a transition?

A

A pyrimidine become another pyrimidine or purine becomes another purine (e.g. A becomes T)

107
Q

What is a transversion

A

A pyrimidine becomes a purine or vice versa (e.g. A becomes G)

108
Q

What are polymeric macromolecules?

A

Large biomolecules, such as nucleotides

109
Q

DNA is a polymer made of what?

A

monomers called deoxynucleotides

110
Q

What characterises purines?

A

2-carbon nitrogen ring

111
Q

What characterises pyrimidines?

A

1-carbon nitrogen ring

112
Q

What is the approximate size of the human genome?

A

3.2Gb (Giga-basepairs)

113
Q

When did pangea begin to break apart?

A

150mya

114
Q

How can oxygen isotopes from ocean cores inform us about temperatures?

A

Concentration of O18 increases in seawater when the world is cold and decreases when warm

115
Q

To what date is carbon-14 restricted when dating?

A

Can only date sites less than 40,000 years old

116
Q

Why are radiometric dating methods problematic?

A
  1. A site may not contain material that is suitable for this type of dating.
  2. These methods have large margins for error
117
Q

Why is there controversy over whether the plesiadapiformes should be included in the primate order?

A

They possess some primate traits but not others.
Most had claws and did not have binocular vision. Some researchers suggest they were to specialised to be ancestral to the primates.

118
Q

When was the oligocene?

A

34-23mya

119
Q

What molar shape characterises frugivores?

A

small, 4 cusps

120
Q

What theories surround the appearance of primates in South America?

A
  1. Fossil rodents rafted from Africa.

2. Descended from a North American primate

121
Q

What were proconsulids?

A
  1. Initially believed to be the oldest hominoids

2. Share several derived features that aren’t seen in haplorrhines such as large grasping thumb.

122
Q

When did the last common ancestor of humans, gorillas and chimpanzees live?

A

9-8mya

123
Q

What distinguishes hominins from hominoids?

A

Bipedal motion. Hominoids belong to the superfamily Hominoidea include living and extict apes as well as humans

124
Q

What is interesting about Sahelanthropus tchadensis?

A

It has a mix of primitive and derived features, it is the earliest known hominin and was found a long way from other early hominin sites.

  1. Foramen magnum position suggests bipedal
  2. Small brain
  3. Teeth more human than chimpanzee
125
Q

When did Ardipithecus kadabba occupy the middle awash region?

A

5.8-5.2mya

126
Q

When have Ardipithecus ramidus fossils been dated to?

A

4.4mya

127
Q

What is interesting about the feet of Ardipithecus ramidus?

A

They are adpted for bipedal motion but have retained the opposable big toe.

128
Q

What characterises thar pelvis of Ardipithecus ramidus?

A

The ilium is shorter and broader than the chimpanzee and also has a sciatic notch, but the lower part of the pelvis is more apelike.

129
Q

How do we know Australopithecus anamensis was bipedal?

A

The tibia was perpendicular to the ankle as in humans, while in non bipedal apes, the angle is oblique. Long arms and curved fingers also suggest they may have been good climbers.

130
Q

What time frame is Australopithecus afarensis attributed to?

A

3.6-3mya (Lucy is 3.2mo)

131
Q

What evidence is there that Australopithecus afarensis was bipedal?

A
  1. Long femoral neck
  2. Short and wide pelvis
  3. Footprints preserved in ash dated to approximate time frame
132
Q

When did Australopithecus garhi live?

A

about 2.5mya

133
Q

When did Australopithecus africans live?

A

3-2.2mya

134
Q

When did Paranthropus aethiopicus live?

A

Around 2.5mya

135
Q

What time frame did Paranthropus robustus occupy?

A

1.8-1mya

136
Q

When did Kenyanthropus platyops live?

A

3.5-3.2mya

137
Q

Oldowan toolsbelong to what mode?

A

1

138
Q

Why may selection have favoured larger brains, prolonged juvenile development, and longer lifespan?

A

These traits make it easier to learn complex foraging methods to acquire the most nutritious food.

139
Q

When and where does the genus Homo appear?

A

2.3 mya in east Africa

140
Q

When did the pleistocene begin?

A

1.8 mya until about 12kya

141
Q

Which group adopted the Acheulian tool industry?

A

Homo ergaster

142
Q

What evidence suggests Homo ergaster ate meat??

A
  1. Skeleton of a woman with Vitamin A poisoning (likely from consuming large preadtors liver)
  2. Hand axes suitable for butchery
  3. Teeth suited for biting and tearing meat
  4. Tapeworm ommon ancestor 1.7-0.8mya meaning we ate meat well before animal domestication.
143
Q

When did Homo hedelbergensis live?

A

800-500kya

144
Q

When did the Neanderthals live?

A

127-30kya

145
Q

What did the anthropoids descend from?

A

The omomyids

146
Q

When did the first Hominins appear in Africa?

A

8-6mya

147
Q

What features does Sahelanthropus tchadensis share with homo species?

A

small canines and thick enamel as well as a large brow ridge and flat face.

148
Q

When did Australopithecus sediba live?

A

1.9-1.7mya

149
Q

What was the first member of the genus Homo?

A

Homo habilis

150
Q

When are the earliest Homo sapien fossils dated to?

A

195kya

151
Q

What are x-rays a form of?

A

electromagnetic radiation (light is as well)

152
Q

What is the wavelength of x-rays?

A

about 1/10,000 that of light and this allows allows them to penetrate materials that would normally simply absorb or reflect visible light.

153
Q

What was significant about the development of the CT scan?

A
  1. It was digital and could be modified
  2. It was sensitive to tissue density differences
  3. Cross-sectional views
154
Q

What other imaging method does CT utilise?

A

X-ray

155
Q

When were the first clinical CT scanners installed?

A

1974-1976

156
Q

What does MRI use to produce its images?

A

Magnetism and radio waves

157
Q

What does a PET scan use to produce images?

A

Radioactive substances which are ingested or injected and can be detected by an imaging device

158
Q

What biological processes can cause variation in shape of individuals or their parts?

A 
Disease
Injury
Mutation
Ontogenic development
Long-term evolutionary diversification
159
Q

What makes morphometrics an important tool?

A

It is a way of quantifying shape, rather than simply trying to compare it to another shape.

160
Q

What provides information on shape in geometric morphometrics?

A

Principle component analysis

161
Q

What is an advantage of analysing landmark coordinates in geometric morphometrics?

A

Its easy to draw relative pictures to illustrate the results (its a bit like a dot-to-dot)

162
Q

What is the definition of shape?

A

the geometric information that remains when location, scale and rotational effects are filtered out from an object

163
Q

What are the main issues when analysing ancient DNA?

A

Short fragments as a result of degradation

Contamination with modern DNA

164
Q

Describe a case in which contamination of ancient DNA occurred.

A

3 viking-age teeth collected.
Full protective equipment worn
Everyone involved had their DNA sampled
DNA amplified on different days by different researchers
Identical results obtained with contamination
Contamination did not match anyone that had been involved (

165
Q

What needs to be present in bone for DNA to have a chance of being extracted?

A

Collagen

166
Q

What equipment is useful in an aDNA lab for preventing contamination?

A 
Bleach
UV lighting (although this can damage plastics so care must be taken with equipment used)
Isolation room for changing into scrubs
167
Q

When do the first flaked tools emerge?

A

2.5-2.5mya

168
Q

What is gradualisation?

A

Slow and steady accumulation of small changes over a long period of time produces major changes in descendants.

169
Q

What is punctuated gradualism?

A

Periods of more rapid, dramatic evolution over short periods of time are separated by periods of little change (stasis).

170
Q

What is adaptive radiation?

A

Members of a species radiate and branch out to occupy a range of niches in the environment.

171
Q

What order do humans belong to?

A

Primates

172
Q

What are the lower primates classified as?

A

Prosimii

173
Q

What are the higher primates classified as?

A

Anthropoidea

174
Q

What happened to the climate 10-5mya?

A

Major cooling and drying leading to spread of grassland - coincides with bipedalism emergence.

175
Q

When is Orronin tuggenesis dated to?

A

About 6mya

176
Q

When is Sahelanthropus tchadensis dated to?

A

About 7mya

177
Q

When did the Australopiths live?

A

4.2-1.2mya

178
Q

When did Homo Naledi live?

A

About 2kya

179
Q

When does evidence of modern humans in Europe date to?

A

40-42kya

180
Q

When do mode 2 (Acheulian) tools appear?

A

1.7mya

181
Q

When do mode 3 (middle palaeolithic) tools appear?

A

350,000 years ago

182
Q

What characterises acheulian tools?

A

Biface

Large cores shaped on both sides

183
Q

What characterises Oldowan tools?

A

Chopping tools

Simple flakes

184
Q

What characterises middle palaeolithic tools?

A

Cores prepared before flaking

185
Q

What characterises upper palaeolithic tools?

A

Blades

186
Q

What chracterises microlithic tools?

A

Small flakes and blades

187
Q

What does tephrachronology refer to?

A

Layers of ash deposited by volcanic eruptions - used as a dating method

188
Q

When was the Pre-pottery Neolithic A?

A

11,600-10,77 BP

189
Q

Which 6 isotopes are common in archaeology?

A

Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Sulfur, Strontium

190
Q

When was MRI invented?

A

1977

191
Q

How do X-rays work?

A
  1. X-rays emmitted from cathode
  2. Scattered into fan shaped beam over area to be scanned
  3. X-rays pass through body and react with silver halloid
  4. Soft areas appear dark as x-rays can easily benetrate, dense bone is light as cannot pass through
192
Q

What are the advantages of X-rays?

A
  • Permanent record
  • Higher spatial resolution than fluoroscopy
  • Captures all bone and dental features
  • Can be mobile (think delicate/fragmented remains)
  • Quick & Inexpensive
193
Q

What are the disadvantages of x-ray?

A
  • 2D

- Problems with superimposition

194
Q

What are the advantages of fluoroscopy?

A
  • Mobile

- Rapid

195
Q

What are the disadvantages of fluoroscopy?

A
  • Narrow field of view
  • Low resolution
  • Difficult to get hard copies as take multiple images
196
Q

What is a limitation of MRI?

A

Needs water and protons to produce image

197
Q

How does CT work?

A
  1. X-rays rotate around person lying on bench

2. Many 2D images stitched together to form 3D

198
Q

What are the benefits of Micro CT?

A

Very high resolution

Comparable detail to SEM

199
Q

What are the disadvantages of Micro CT?

A

Time consuming
expensive
Availability

200
Q

What is the principle of coalescent?

A
  • All mutations can trace a common ancestor

- At some point, some linneages will go extinct

201
Q

What is genetic drift?

A

The change in frequency of a particular allele in a population. May be due to more or less offspring or selection.

202
Q

What factors affect the nutrition you need?

A
  • Occupation
  • Sex
  • Age
  • Pregnancy/lactation
  • Health
  • Genetics
  • Climate
203
Q

What is stress?

A

A biological response to a stimulus/stressor that changes the normal or target state of an organism.

204
Q

What is allostasis?

A

Maintenance of an adjusted ‘set point’ to better suit the environment.

205
Q

What is Alollistic load?

A

The cost of maintaining an alternative state.

206
Q

How is stress managed in the short term, longer term, long term and very long term?

A

Short term - homeostasis
Longer term - acclimatisation modifies homeostatic response, phenotypic plasticity (reversible)
Long term - Developmental plasticity (irreversible)
Very long term - Natural selection

207
Q

4 examples of non specific stress markers

A
  1. Harris lines
  2. Enamel hypoplasia
  3. Periostitis
  4. Delayed maturation
208
Q

Order of hominin species

A 
Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7-6mya)
Orrorin tugenensis (6.2-5.6mya)
Ardipithecus kadabba (5.8-5.2mya)
Ardipithecus ramidus (4.5-4.3mya)
Australopithecus anamensis (4.2-3.9mya)
Australopithecus Afarensis (3.7-3mya)
Australopithecus Bahrelghazali (3.6-3mya) (and Kenyanthropus platyops 3.5-3.3mya)
Australopithecus Africanus (3.3-2.1mya)
Australopithecus Garhi (2.5-2.3mya) (and Paranthropus aethiopicus 2.7-2.3mya)
Homo habilis(2.4-1.6mya) (and Paranthropus boisei 2.3-1.4mya)
Australopithecus Sediba (1.9-1.8mya) (and Paranthropus robustus 2-1.2mya)
Homo erectus (1.8mya - 30kya)
Homo antecessor( 1.2mya-500kya)
Homo heidelbergensis (600-200kya)
Homo neanderthalensis (350-28kya)
Homo floresiensis (95-12kya)
Homo sapiens (200kya)
209
Q

Why is mitochondrial DNA useful when studying aDNA?

A

It is generally more abundant as it is less likely to degrade than nuclear DNA meaning there is more chance of obtaining longer fragment lengths

BIOARCHAEOLOGY (4 decks)

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