Chapter 5 - Sports Psychology (Paper 2)

Question 1

Define achievement motivation.

Answer 1

The tendency to approach or avoid competitive situations. Summed up as the drive to succeed minus the fear of failure.

Question 2

Define NACH.

Answer 2

The need to achieve; approach behaviour. The player welcomes competition.

Question 3

Define NAF

Answer 3

The need to avoid failure; avoidance behaviour. The player avoids risks.

Question 4

What is attributing success internally?

Answer 4

Giving a reason for success that is due to the responsibility of the player.

Question 5

Describe the characteristics of a NACH performer.

Answer 5

1) Welcome competition
2) Take risks
3) Very confident and have belief in their ability
4) Task persistent
5) Attribute success internally
6) Welcome feedback and evaluation
7) they based their actions on trying to seek pride and satisfaction from their performance

Question 6

Describe the characteristics of NAF a performer

Answer 6

1) Give up easily
2) Do not like feedback or evaluation
3) Take easy options
4) Lack confidence
5) Avoid 50/50 challenges

Question 7

What type of behaviour shown by NACH performers?

Answer 7

Approach behaviour

Question 8

What type of behaviour shown by NAF performers?

Answer 8

Avoidance behaviour

Question 9

Define interaction

Answer 9

The combination of the situational and personality factors that decide the level of achievement motivation.

Question 10

What determines the NACH or NAF approach?

Answer 10

Depends on the interaction of personality and situation. In terms of personality, some performers will have the need to achieve where is others will have the need to avoid failure. In terms of the situation, the performer has to gauge the probability of success in the task and the incentive gained from that success. This leads to success being different but no sense of pride been achieved and this approach may be adopted by a person with the need to avoid
failure. However the undertaking of the task with a high degree of difficulty that requires some risky and difficult moves when completed provides satisfaction and pride and is adopted by the need to achieve.

Question 11

Describe the strategies in which coaches can try and improve the approach behaviour in players.

Answer 11

1) Reinforcement. The coach should offer praise and rewards to players who do you well or achieve their goals, so the players keep the desire to do well in the future, thus promoting task persistence.
2) Attribute success internally. The coach should tell the player that any success achieved was down to something for which the player has responsibility.
3) Allowing success. To encourage the belief in success and improve the confidence of the performer, the coach could set tasks and training drills that can be accomplished with little effort in the early development of the player and perhaps in the early part of the training sessions.
4) Improving confidence.
5) Goal setting. Coaches and players should set goals that are achievable with effort. This means there is a satisfaction to be gained from achieving the goal. Once a goal is reached another challenge can be set so that the performers always has a realistic target to aim for.

Question 12

What is the achievement goal theory?

Answer 12

Achievement goal theory suggests that motivation and task persistence dependent on the type of goals set by the performer and how they measure success.

Question 13

What is confidence?

Answer 13

A belief in the ability to master a task.

Question 14

What does confidence depend on?

Answer 14

Confidence is another psychological concept that depends on interaction: the interaction of experience, personality and situation. It makes sense to suggest that if you have experience of an activity you are more likely to perform better at it, especially if that experience has been positive.

Question 15

What are the two types of confidence?

Answer 15

Trait confidence and state confidence

Question 16

Define trait confidence.

Answer 16

A belief in the ability to do well in a range of sports.

Question 17

Define state confidence

Answer 17

Belief in the ability to master a specific sporting moment.

Question 18

What is the difference between trait confidence and state confidence?

Answer 18

Trait confidence refers to a consistent level of a person’s confidence whereas state confidence refers to a person’s confidence in a specific sporting situation.

Question 19

Define competitive orientation

Answer 19

The degree to which a performer is drawn to challenging situations.

Question 20

What does the objective sporting situation take into account?

Answer 20

The performance takes into account the situation in which the task being undertaken.

Question 21

What does the Vealey model of sports confidence suggest?

Answer 21

Vealey suggested that confidence gained in one area of sport could be used to improve confidence in a different sporting activity. She used the idea of trait confidence, the performer would rate the chances of doing well in the range of sports, and the idea of state confidence, where performer would rate the chances of doing well in one specific situation. It was suggested that these two influences combine to produce a level of confidence in an objective sporting situation. The result or outcome of the performance of the skill in that situation is then evaluated by the player. The result of that judgement may then lead to improved confidence in future activities and the player may go on to develop a competitive orientation. If the subjective outcome is good then trait confidence and competitive orientation increase however if the subjective outcome is bad then both trait confidence and competitive orientation decrease.

Question 22

Define self-efficacy

Answer 22

A belief in the ability to master a specific sporting situation.

Question 23

Explain the factors that affect self-efficacy.

Answer 23

1) Performance accomplishments - this means self-efficacy is influenced by what you have done in the past or your past experiences. Performance accomplishments can be enhanced if the players not only achieved the win but enjoyed the experience too.
2) Vicarious experience - is concerned with watching others do the same task being successful. The person being watched is the model and the effect of seeing others do the task well is even better if those models are perceived to have similar ability to a performer.
3) Verbal persuasion - This refers to the power of reinforcement and encouragement. Praise from others such as the coach, fellow players or spectators gives a player a real incentives and confidence to repeat the successful attempt. Verbal persuasion is more effective if it comes from someone with a high esteem. For young players, the benefit of positive comments such as ‘well done’, it is essential in building confidence.
4) Emotional arousal - Dealing with emotion in sport, such as keeping calm and maintaining your control and game strategy when you are very close to getting a big win, is essential to good performance. Such situations in sport cause an increase in anxiety and the key to emotional arousal is how the performer perceives the increased arousal before and during the activity. Teams and players that deal with arousal better get the bests results.

Question 24

Define performance accomplishments.

Answer 24

What you have already achieved.

Question 25

Define vicarious experience.

Answer 25

Seeing others do the task.

Question 26

Define verbal persuasion.

Answer 26

Encouragement from others

Question 27

Define emotional arousal

Answer 27

A perception of the effects of anxiety of performance.

Question 28

How can coaches and players use the four influences on self-efficacy, to help and improve and promote player confidence?

Answer 28

• Control arousal with relaxation or stress management techniques such as visualisation.
• Give an accurate demonstration (either by a player of an equal level or by a role model)
• Point out past success performances.
• Give support and encouragement.
• Allow success during training by setting tasks within the capability of the performer.
• Set attainable goals. Once these goals have been reached, a further more challenging goal can be set. The goals set should not alway be about winning - performance and progress goals that concern improvement in technique and getting a better personal result could also be set. It is important that goals should avoid social comparisons.
• Attribute any success achieved to the athlete, suggesting it is the athletes ability or effort that produced a good result.
• The coach or player may use the technique of mental practice to help the performer go over a routine or sequence in the mind. The coach can also offer a one-to-one coaching session, when the performer is given specific attention and help with weaknesses in their own individual performance.

Question 29

What does self-efficacy lead to regarding a performers character?

Answer 29

Self-efficacy increases positive attitudes, increases motivation, reduces fear of failure, reduces anxiety and helps to reach optimal arousal levels.

Question 30

Explain the home-field advantage

Answer 30

The home-field advantage is a balance between confidence and anxiety - the influence of the home crowd can increase confidence in the home team and cause anxiety in the away team. Often the team playing at home wins the game because the home audience support increases players’ motivation but and confidence. The familiarity with the home environment and not having to travel are also further reasons why more games are won at home. Playing at home remind may mean the home team plays in a more fluent style since they feel more at ease and more confident. The home audience can cause ‘functional assertive behaviour’ in the home team, causing them to have more drive, more assertion and the correct choice of response. In addition to helping the home team, the home crowd can have a negative effect on the away team, causing increased anxiety with hostile chanting. This can lead to a less effective performance and the away team might suffer from social inhibition. However sometimes the home crowd can have a negative effect on the home team. The home crowd can cause the home team to ‘choke’ in a big game, with the increased pressure of the game causing the catastrophe effect when the players suffer a dramatic reduction in performance.

Question 31

When is the home field advantage more effective?

Answer 31

• The effect of the home-field advantage is increased in stadiums where the crowds are close to the pitch. In large stadiums the crowd may be far away and the help of the home support is ineffective.
• The bigger and more support of the crowd, the better the effect is for the home team; the more hostile the crowd is to the away team, the more negative the effect is for them.

Question 32

What is the difference between self-confidence and self efficacy?

Answer 32

Self confidence is the belief in the ability to master a task (general) whereas self efficacy is a belief in the ability to master a specific sporting situation (specific).

Question 33

Define leader

Answer 33

Someone who has influence in helping others to achieve their goals.

Question 34

Define prescribed leader

Answer 34

Appointed from outside the group.

Question 35

Define emergent leader

Answer 35

Appointed from within the group.

Question 36

What is the main role of the leader?

Answer 36

The leader plays a key role in maintaining effort and motivation by inspiring the team and setting targets.

Question 37

In order for a leader to be effective what are the necessary qualities?

Answer 37

1) Charisma - A certain demeanour and presence that the leader has which makes others listen and follow.
2) Communication - Leader has to get the message across.
3) Interpersonal skills - Leader needs to interact with other members of the team and sometimes those outside the group.
4) Empathy - Leader needs to be able to listen to others and take their views into account, showing an understanding of their views.
5) Experience - Need a wealth of knowledge in their chosen sport built up over many years.
6) Inspirational - Leaders need to encourage others and keep them trying even when it gets tough.
7) Confidence - Confidence can be gained from others and so a confident approach from the leader can be spread to the players.
8) Organisational skills - A good leader would plan and prepare for training, linking it to the demands of the team.

Question 38

What are the three styles of leadership identified by Lewin?

Answer 38

• The autocratic and task orientated style
• The democratic and person-orientated style
• The laissez-faire style

Question 39

Define autocratic approach

Answer 39

A leader that makes the decision.

Question 40

Define a democratic approach

Answer 40

Decisions are made by group consultation.

Question 41

Define person-orientated leadership

Answer 41

Concerned with interpersonal relationships.

Question 42

Define task leadership

Answer 42

Concerned with getting results.

Question 43

Describe the autocratic and task orientated style of leadership.

Answer 43

In this approach, the leader makes all the decisions and dictates instructions to the group. An autocratic leader adopts the task orientated style. In the task orientated style the concern of the leaders to get results and reach targets. The coach will need to stay with the group and maintain contact throughout the session, since the group tends to switch off when this style is used if the coach is not there.

Question 44

Given example of when the autocratic and task-orientated style of leadership can be used.

Answer 44

An autocratic approach could be used by a coach who has made a specific plan to win a game.

Question 45

Describe the democratic and person-orientated style of leadership.

Answer 45

In this method, the coach adopts a more sympathetic approach to leadership and seeks the opinion of the group before making decisions, based on those suggestions. A democratic leader adopts a person-orientated style. In this style, group usually continues to work on the coach is not present.

Question 46

Describe the Laissez-faire style of leadership.

Answer 46

In the style, the leader does very little and leaves the group to it. It may be that the manager simply tells the players what the manager want from them in a training session and then goes away to conduct some other business, safe in the knowledge that the senior players will conduct the session to help out the team for the expected win in the next match. There is a danger however the less motivated players will stop working if they are left alone.

Question 47

When can the Laissez-faire style be used effectively?

Answer 47

When the group has plenty of experience.

Question 48

What can leaders use to determine the best leadership style for a group?

Answer 48

Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership.

Question 49

Explain Fielder’s contingency model of leadership.

Answer 49

Fiedler took into account one of the factors that influence leadership style: the situation. He suggested that an autocratic or task orientated style of leadership is best used in two opposite situations: when everything is good and when everything is bad. Fiedler called a situation when everything is good a most favourable situation and when everything is bad a least favourable situation. In the middle ground when the situation is between good and bad and he called it a moderately favourable situation and suggested that a person orientated style is best used.

Question 50

How favourable the situation is depends on what?

Answer 50

• The task
• The leader-group relationship
• The leaders position of authority

Question 51

List characteristics of a most favourable situation.

Answer 51

• Leader has respect
• Good support within the group
• Group is of high ability
• High levels of motivation
• Task is clear to the team
• Harmony between leader and group

Question 52

List characteristics of a least favourable situation.

Answer 52

• Hostility between group members
• Little respect for the leader
• Group has low ability
• Group members do not support each other
• Motivation is low
• Task is unclear
• Leader is weak

Question 53

List characteristics of a moderately favourable situation.

Answer 53

• Need or preference for consultation within the group
• Motivation is moderate
• Limited support
• Group has reasonable ability

Question 54

When is the task style of leadership best used?

Answer 54

In both most favourable situations and least favourable situations.

Question 55

When is the person-orientated style of leadership best used?

Answer 55

In moderately favourable situations.

Question 56

Explain Chelladurai’s multi dimensional model of leadership.

Answer 56

Chelladurai looked at other factors that influence the choice of leadership style. He assessed the idea that the leader must use an interactive approach to balance the requirements of the situation, the needs of the group and the leader’s own preferences. His suggestion was the more the leader actually used a style to match the requirements of the situation and the needs of the group, then the more satisfaction would be gained from the performance. The importance of the situation would include the type of task being formed (individual or team sports require different leadership styles therefore the size of a good influences the situation). The features of a group further affect the style of leadership depending on their preferences.

Question 57

Define required behaviour

Answer 57

What the situation demands.

Question 58

Define actual behaviour

Answer 58

What the leader decides to do in relation to leadership style.

Question 59

Define preferred behaviour

Answer 59

What the group wants.

Question 60

In the Chelladurai model, once the three influences on leader behaviour have been assessed, what does the leader then do?

Answer 60

The leader can then choose how to behave with the group. The required behaviour of the leader is the result of an assessment of situation. The actual behaviour of the leader may be chosen to match both the situation and the group demands. The preferred behaviour is the result of what the group want or prefer.

Question 61

Define stress

Answer 61

And negative response of the body to the threat of causing anxiety.

Question 62

Define eustress

Answer 62

Positive response of the body to a threat.

Question 63

Which type of sports provide eustress?

Answer 63

Extreme sports such as sky diving.

Question 64

Define cognitive effects of stress

Answer 64

These are psychological.

Question 65

Define somatic effects of stress

Answer 65

These are physiological.

Question 66

What are the two types of negative responses to stress?

Answer 66

• Cognitive

- Somatic

Question 67

Define stressor

Answer 67

A cause of stress.

Question 68

List examples of stressors.

Answer 68

• Injury
• Playing in an important match
• Playing against really good opponents
• Playing to get an important reward such as prize money
• Fear of failure caused by pressure from being watched by significant others, pressure from the coach or pressure from your own expectations.

Question 69

What happens when you are suffering cognitive stress?

Answer 69

• It brings negative thoughts and feelings, including the rational thinking of the inability to cope with the demands of the situation.
• It can lead to a loss of concentration which may be linked to the process of attentional narrowing when, as arousal and anxiety levels increase, the ability to take in information or cues from the environment is reduced and therefore some important information maybe missed at higher levels of stress.

Question 70

What happens somatically when you are stressed?

Answer 70

• Increase in heart rate
• Increase in sweating.
• Nausea and a feeling of sickness.
• Muscular tension sometimes seen in sports performers when they are involved in high-pressure, isolated situations.

Question 71

What are the cognitive stress management techniques?

Answer 71

• Thought stopping
• Positive self talk
• Imagery
• Visualisation
• Mental rehearsal
• Attentional control and cue utilisation
• Psychological skills training

Question 72

Explain thought stopping and how it act as a cognitive stress management technique.

Answer 72

When negative and irrational thought occurs, the performer uses a learned action or trigger to remove them. This learned physical action or cue can be a simple movement or rehearsed action that is linked to the negative thought to redirect attention to the task in hand. The prior learning of the cueing action is vital to the success of this technique.

Question 73

Explain positive self-talk and how it act as a cognitive stress management technique.

Answer 73

Self talk is when the performer replace negative thoughts with positive ones. Self talk can also be used in other ways for example it could help the player to focus on a tactical instruction from the coach and it can be used to overcome a weakness.

Question 74

Explain imagery and how it act as a cognitive stress management technique.

Answer 74

Imagery can recreate a successful image of the action from the past performance when the skill was performed successfully and the player can recall the feel of the actual movements in the mind. Imagery can go even further and use not only the actual feel of the movement but the emotions associated with that successful action. Some players use imagery to avoid stressful situations by imagining a calm place and therefore use it as a mental escape from the stress.

Question 75

Explain visualisation and how it act as a cognitive stress management technique.

Answer 75

Visualisation uses a mental image of the skill, an image perfected while performing skills successfully in training. This image is then ‘locked in’ and re-lived when the skill is performed for real.

Question 76

What is the difference between an external image and internal image?

Answer 76

An external image is when the player has an image that concentrates on the environment, almost as if the player is watching themselves on television. Internal imagery looks the emotions and feelings involved in the skill, such as the sense of kinaesthesis used to develop a feel of the movement or satisfaction gained from completing the successful action.

Question 77

Explain mental rehearsal and how it act as a cognitive stress management technique.

Answer 77

This is the process of going over the movements of the task in the mind before the action takes place. Mental rehearsal is especially useful for athletes about to perform a sequence of skills such as a routine on the trampoline. The idea is that if the required movements are rehearsed in order and in spatial sequence, then the performer is less likely to forget the order of the moves or the required actions and therefore stress is reduced. Mental rehearsal is best done in a calm situation prior to the event.

Question 78

Explain attentional control and cue utilisation and how it act as a cognitive stress management technique.

Answer 78

One of the consequences of stress is that a performer may lose concentration and focus on incorrect stimuli from the environment. As stress and arousal and increase, then the ability to take in information reduces this is known as attentional narrowing. The effect of emotion on cue utilisation suggested that the ability to take in information is directly linked to the level of arousal, cue utilisation. Therefore at low-levels of stress and arousal the performer is able to process plenty of cues from the environment however sometimes a high amount of information is taken note of, which can cause confusion and incorrect information could be mistaken for important cues. At high levels of arousal and stress, only limited information can be processed and this may cause important information to be missed a problem known as attentional wastage. It means that important information has been ignored and therefore reduces the level of performance. At moderate levels of arousal, the performer picks up the relevant information and performance can be successful. There are four styles of attentional control and the performer must choose the right style at the right time (style that suits the situation). The idea behind the use of attentional control is that if the correct style is chosen at the right time, then stress is lowered and performance is enhanced. During a game an experienced player may learn to switch styles as appropriate and therefore make correct choices.

Question 79

Define Cue utilisation

Answer 79

The ability to process information is directly linked to the level of arousal.

Question 80

What are the four styles of attention that can be used in sporting context? How can the four styles then be combined?

Answer 80

1) Broad, when the number of cues can be identified.
2) Narrow, when is best to focus on one or two cues.
3) External, when information is drawn from the environment.
4) Internal when information is used from with in the performer.
These styles can be then combined into broad external, broad internal, narrow external and narrow internal.

Question 81

Explain psychological skills training and how it act as a cognitive stress management technique.

Answer 81

The performer can train and practice using any methods explained as cognitive stress management techniques. Many professional sports clubs employ a sport psychologist just to do that. Players can be guided through aspects of visualisation and imagery.

Question 82

What are the somatic stress management techniques?

Answer 82

• Biofeedback
• Progressive muscle relaxation
• Centring

Question 83

Explain biofeedback and how it act as a somatic stress management technique.

Answer 83

This technique uses a measuring device to help the athlete recognise the physical changes that will happen when under stress. Such measures would include the measure of heart rate, the galvanic skin response that measures the increase in electrical activity when sweating or electromyography that measures muscular tension with electrodes attached to the skin. The idea is that the athlete learns to recognise when such physical symptoms are happening and can eventually do so without the use of measuring device. As soon as the signs are recognised, the performer can then use techniques to calm down and reduce stress.

Question 84

Explain progressive muscle relaxation and how it act as a somatic stress management technique.

Answer 84

This is a physical technique, often conducted with the use of recorded instructions, when the performer alternates between the state of tension in a group of muscles to a state of relaxation in the same muscles. The groups of muscles that are tensed, held and then relaxed are worked progressively from the periphery of the body to the core. The muscles of the arms, shoulders and legs may be worked on at the first time until the abdominal muscles are utilised.

Question 85

Explain centring and how it act as a somatic stress management technique.

Answer 85

Centring is a form of breathing control when, at opportune times, the sports performer can learn to relax the shoulders and chest while concentrating on the slow movement of the abdominal muscles when taking deep controlled breaths. The use of the slow controlled breathing diverts the attention away from the stressful situation and once the technique has been mastered, the athlete can use it quickly when the need arises.

Question 86

Define attribution

Answer 86

A perception of the reason for an outcome of an event.

Question 87

What does correct attributions increase?

Answer 87

Task persistence

Question 88

What are the two sections of Weiner’s classification for winning and losing?

Answer 88

• Locus of causality

- Stability dimension

Question 89

Define the internal attribute

Answer 89

Within the performer’s control.

Question 90

Define the external attribute

Answer 90

Outside the performer’s control.

Question 91

What is the locus of causality?

Answer 91

The locus of causality is the point where a reason might be placed, it looks at the amount of control the player had over the result and can be internal or external.

Question 92

What is the locus of causality divided into?

Answer 92

• Internal

- External

Question 93

Give an example of an internal attribute of the locus of causality.

Answer 93

Effort

Question 94

Give an example of an external attribute of the locus of causality.

Answer 94

Luck or decision of the referee.

Question 95

What is the stability dimension?

Answer 95

The stability dimension looks at how much the reasons for winning and losing can be changed. This includes a stable and unstable reason.

Question 96

What is the stability divided into?

Answer 96

• Stable attribute

- Unstable attribute

Question 97

Define stable attribute

Answer 97

Unlikely to change in the short-term.

Question 98

Define unstable attribute

Answer 98

Can change in a short amount of time.

Question 99

Define self-serving bias

Answer 99

Using external and/or unstable reasons for losing.

Question 100

How is self-serving bias used to maintain motivation?

Answer 100

To maintain motivation, losing is blamed on external stable reasons, external unstable reasons or internal unstable reasons. A coach should ensure a player blames a loss on these factors and not internal stable reasons. A coach should also make sure that players feel a loss can be changed, so changeable and internal reasons can be used to explain defeat. Coaches and players should never give reasons for losing that are stable and internal, such as player ability, since this might cause the player to lose motivation otherwise the problem of learned helplessness could occur.

Question 101

Define learned helplessness

Answer 101

Using internal stable reasons for losing.

Question 102

Explain how confidence can be badly affected by learned helplessness

Answer 102

When self-doubt or lack of belief in an ability begins to affect the player, then confidence is lowered. Confidence can be badly affected by learned helplessness, when a performer begins to doubt if they can actually complete the task successfully. The performer is so lacking in confidence that they think that failure is inevitable and success is unlikely; no belief in ability. The player may even give up even is success is possible and they could have actually won the game. Learned helplessness can be so bad it becomes general, when the player begins to feel they are no good at sport overall or at a type of sport. Therefore, learned helplessness can be both general or specific.

Question 103

How is learned helplessness developed?

Answer 103

• Attributing success to internal and stable factors

- Lack of success or negative experiences

Question 104

Define attribution retraining

Answer 104

Changing the reasons given for success and failure.

Question 105

How can learned helplessness be overcome?

Answer 105

Attribution retraining

Question 106

How would a coach use attribution retraining to overcome learned helplessness?

Answer 106

• The key to attribution retraining is to change the perception and belief of the sportsperson by changing the reasons given for failure. To overcome learned helplessness the coach should change internal stable reasons of failure into external unstable ones.
• The coach could also provide motivation via reinforcement
• Allow early success so that confidence in ability is achieve
• Set achievable goals
• Stress any personal improvements made during the game (These strategies help to promote self-esteem in players)
• Learned helplessness is linked to confidence, so using some of the strategies that affect confidence will help overcome learned helplessness.
• Using cognitive and somatic stress management techniques also work as a form of attribution retraining.

Question 107

Define mastery orientation

Answer 107

This is the opposite of learned helplessness and is a state of mind when the performer is high in confidence, has belief in their ability and thinks that success can be repeated whilst failure is temporary.