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Cognition and the Brain > Exam I > Flashcards

Exam I Flashcards

1
Q

Early goal of neuroscience

A

map the brain by characterizing the effects of damage and disease

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2
Q

Task-based analysis

A

Can characterize the precise nature of deficits

Limitation: not useful for normal mental activity

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3
Q

Gold standard for understanding critical structures for brain function

A

Lesioning; causation not correlational

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4
Q

Baddeley & Hitch Model

A
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5
Q

Phrenology

A

Gall
by touching skull, you can make assessments on personality
PRESUMPTION –> brain would be bigger/smaller ; (convexities/concavities) depending on the functions you possess

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6
Q

Localization

A

localization: different aspects of brain function are governed by, and therefore localizable to different centers of the brain

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7
Q

Mass Action

A

brain function distributed throughout the cortex

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8
Q

Pierre Flourens

A

critic of phrenology (Gall’s localization)
would lesion animals in localized spots; failed to find evidence of localization (cerebral cortex)

EQUIPOTENTIALITY:

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9
Q

Equipotentiality

A

Pierre Flourens
any given piece of cortical tissue had potential to support any brain function

overtime, animals with experimental damage recovered without repair to damaged tissue itself, assumed other parts could take over

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10
Q

Evidence for localization

A

Gall “phrenology”
Paul Broca “tan”
John Hughlings Jackson “jacksonian march”

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11
Q

Evidence for mass action

A

Pierre Flourens “equipotentiality” animal lesions

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12
Q

Jacksonian March

A

John Hughlings Jackson

noticed there was a specific sequence of body parts that correlate with seizure activity traveling along motor cortex

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13
Q

Paul Broca

A

tan
language production
left frontal cortex

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14
Q

Factor that advanced brain studies

A

aseptic surgery

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15
Q

Method of learning a great deal about neural function

A

studying morphology from brain tissue under microscope

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16
Q

Camilo Golgi

A

developed a silver stain that allowed for visualization of individual neurons

BELIEVED brain was a continuous mass of tissue with a common cytoplasm

Synctyium

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17
Q

Santiago Ramon y Cajal

A

Neural Doctrine: nervous system made up of individual neurons

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18
Q

Neuron Doctrine

A

Ramon y Cajal

nervous system made up of individual neurons

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19
Q

Fritzch and Hitzig

A

reported that electrical stimulation in anterior part of dog’s frontal lobe produced movement in opposite side of body

part of body affected varied systematically with positioning of electrode

supported Jackson’s somotropic organization

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20
Q

Describe the process of neuronal communication

A

electrical-chemical transmission

(1) electrical impulses carry signals along axon
(2) chemical transmitters carry signals between neurons across synapse

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21
Q

Describe neuronal communication

A

Describe

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22
Q

PSP Summation

A

postsynaptic potential summation – EPSPs and IPSPs integrate spatially and temporally at the axon hillock

their summation determines signal

IPSP: hyperpolarization, cell further away from threshold, less likely to fire
EPSP: depolarization, generates action potential

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23
Q

Glutamate

A

EPSP
excitatory neurotransmitter
opening of Na+

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24
Q

GABA

A

IPSP
inhibitory neurotransmitter
influx of Cl- ions, hyperpolarizing cell /orK+

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25
Q

Acetylcholine

A

excitatory neurotransmitter
opening of Na+

Acetylcholine: facilitates learning and memory
• affected in Alzheimer’s Disease

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26
Q

Excitatory NTs

A

glutamate, acetylcholine

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27
Q

Inhibitory NTs

A

GABA, glycine

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28
Q

Neuromodulators

A

modulate activity in large regions rather than
strictly exciting/inhibiting specific postsynaptic neurons

dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin

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29
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

transmitting signals between neurons

exciting/inhibiting specific postsynaptic neurons

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30
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Norepinphrine: enhances vigilance & preparation for action

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31
Q

Dopamine

A

facilitates movement, reinforces behaviors,
helps keep information in short-term (working) memory
• affected in Parkinson’s Disease (low), schizophrenia (high)

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32
Q

Serotonin

A

inhibits some behaviors; lots of other effects

• affected in Depression

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33
Q

Agonist

A

fully activates the receptor that it binds to

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34
Q

Antagonist

A

binds to a receptor but does not activate and can block the activity of other agonists

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35
Q

brain orientations

A

dorsal: top
ventral: bottom

anterior: front
posterior: back
rostral: front
caudal: back

medial: middle
lateral: side

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36
Q

Electrochemical communication

A

electrical signal propagated down axon, converted to chemical signal and transmitted across synapse

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37
Q

3 basic neuronal components

A

soma, dendrites, axon

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38
Q

Evolution of brain morphology

A

computational power of brain increased over time…more wrinkled and compacted to fit (gyrations)

optimally shaped to minimize connection distance between distant groups of neurons

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39
Q

Gray v. White matter

location in brain

A

gray matter=border=glial cells (cell bodies)

white matter=majority, middle=axons

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40
Q

Brain slicing

A

axial: top and bottom
sagittal: side and side
coronal: front and back

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41
Q

gyrus and sulcus

A

gyrus: top
sulcus: bottom

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42
Q

4 lobes of brain

A

FPOT

frontal: executive functioning
parietal: perception, making sense of world
occipital: vision
temporal: memory

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43
Q

central sulcus

A

separates frontal and parietal lobe, deep groove

separates motor and sensory cortex

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44
Q

precentral sulcus

A

primary motor cortex

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45
Q

postcentral sulcus

A

somatosensory cortex

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46
Q

sylvian fissure

A

separates parietal and temporal lobes

insula buried within it

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47
Q

line of Gennari

A

white

primary visual cortex

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48
Q

Brodmann

A

cytoarchitectonic

52 layers, based on cell morphology, density, and layering

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49
Q

Cytoarchitect

A

Brodmann

52 layers, based on cell morphology, density, and layering

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50
Q

Golgi stain

A

everything on neuron in all of its glory but not all neurons in total

51
Q

Nissi stain

A

every cell body in total picture, can estimate how many total total

52
Q

Cortical layers

A

six cortical layers

53
Q

Striate v. motor cortex

A 
STRIATE CORTEX - visual, line of genarri
Superficial
Upper
Middle
Deep

MOTOR CORTEX -
superficial
upper
deep

54
Q

Layers: input v. output

A

layer 4: main input layer
layer 5: main output layer

Different functional areas show different pattern of layering and cell types

55
Q

Brain area mapping

A

heat map = brain activation

DTI = white matter tracts along axons

56
Q

Human connectome project

A

aims to provide an unparalleled compilation of neural data, an interface to graphically navigate this data and the opportunity to achieve never before realized conclusions about the living human brain

57
Q

Brain dictionary

A

interactive map showing which brain areas respond to hearing different words

  • –> just tied to English language?
  • -> conceptual or semantic?
58
Q

Topographic Functional Brain Organization

A

structure correlates to function

59
Q

Retinotopic mapping

A

visual areas organize by retinotopic mapping, forming a 2D representation of the visual image formed on the retina in such a way that neighboring regions of the image are represented by neighboring regions of the visual area

radioactive glucose injected into bloodstream, developed map of retina produced by brain

adjacent neurons of the LGN project to adjacent neurons in primary visual cortex

60
Q

tonotropy

A

tones close to each other in terms of frequency are represented in topologically neighbouring regions in the brain

61
Q

Cortical homunculus

A

a distorted representation of the human body, based on a neurological “map” of the areas and proportions of the human brain dedicated to processing motor function

discrimination ability –> more neurons coding for adjacent areas

62
Q

corpus collosum

A

largest bundle of myelinated axons

carries millions of axons from one hemisphere to the other

63
Q

foveal vision

A

center of your gaze

64
Q

Retinotopic organization

A

concave shape of retina on back of eyeball means anything perceived below the point of fixation will be projected onto upper retina, and left projected to right

adjacent neurons of the LGN project to adjacent neurons in primary visual cortex

everything in the primary visual cortex is “flipped” with respect to the visual field

65
Q

Electrophysiology

A

measures the electrical activity of neurons, and, in particular, action potential activity

Hubel and Weisel - a neuron responded with bursts of action potentials in given angle
orientation selectivity of V1 neurons

rate coding
tuning curve

66
Q

Retinotopic Receptive Fields

A

A single neuron in visual cortex is not responsive to all stimuli. Shape, color, orientation, contrast, movement…

67
Q

Angelo Mosso

A

discovery that brain blood supply pulsates

brain diverts more blood to that part of brain during mental processing

68
Q

PET

A

injected with tracer, pick up on distribution

localization of brain activity

69
Q

MRI

A

Structural imaging

uses magnetic field and radio frequency

70
Q

fMRI

A

BOLD blood oxygen level dependent

blood level = correlate for brain activity

71
Q

Hemodynamics

A

Haemodynamic response (HR) allows the rapid delivery of blood to active neuronal tissues

fMRI imaging technique used to measure the haemodynamic response of the brain in relation to the neural activities

slow compared to direct neural recordings

72
Q

BOLD versus spikes

A

SPIKES = electrical, EEG, HIGH temporal

BOLD = hemodynamics, PET/fMRI, HIGH spatial

73
Q

Lesion options

A

tissue removal
tissue destruction
reversible lesions

74
Q

tissue removal

A

+precise

-non-reversible

75
Q

tissue destruction

A

exitocins: chemicals that overstimulate neuron receptor

76
Q

Why was trauma site not random?

A

Shaken Jello Mold Inside Skull
Holbourn
Orbitofrontal and Anterior Temporal Contusions

77
Q

Hemineglect

A

right temporal parietal damage

78
Q

Visual Pathways

A 
dorsal = where
ventral = what
79
Q

V1 hypercolumns

A
  1. Stereo
  2. Color
  3. Line (edge) orientation
80
Q

Draw nueron

A

Draw

81
Q

Electrochemical gradient

A

The active transport of ions across the cell membrane causes an electrical gradient to build up across this membrane. The number of positively charged ions outside the cell is usually greater than the number of positively charged ions in the cytosol (neg inside)

difference in charges creates voltage; voltage across membrane =membrane potential

there are less positive ions inside the cell, the inside of the cell is negative compared to outside the cell. This resulting membrane potential favors the movement of positively charged ions (cations) into the cell, and the movement of negative ions (anions) out of the cell. So, there are two forces that drive the diffusion of ions across the plasma membrane—a chemical force (the ions’ concentration gradient), and an electrical force (the effect of the membrane potential on the ions’ movement). These two forces working together are called an electrochemical gradient.

82
Q

Electrochemical gradient

A

The active transport of ions across the cell membrane causes an electrical gradient to build up across this membrane. The number of positively charged ions outside the cell is usually greater than the number of positively charged ions in the cytosol (neg inside)

difference in charges creates voltage; voltage across membrane =membrane potential

neg inside, pos outside
mem potential favors outflux of positive ions in, and neg ions out

a chemical force (the ions’ concentration gradient), and an electrical force (the effect of the membrane potential on the ions’ movement). These two forces working together are called an electrochemical gradient.

83
Q

Voltage gated channel

Chemical gated channel

A
84
Q

Regenerative spike

A

opens Na+ and Ca+ voltage gated channels
depolarization
EPSP summation

85
Q

temporal v. spatial summation

A

spatial: simultaneous activation by many presynaptic neurons
temporal: high frequency stimulation by one presynaptic neuron

86
Q

Neurology
Neuroscience
Cognitive psychology

A

Neurology: Function and pathology of the nervous system

Neuroscience: Mechanisms of the nervous system, includes neuroanatomy, neurochem, neurophysiology

Cognitive psychology: How the mind processes information

87
Q

fundus

A

concavity of gyrus/sulcus

88
Q

Fixation point

A

the point that directly stimulates the fovea of the retina

89
Q

rate coding

A

of action potentials/time

the differences in spiking frequency from different stimuli

measuring the number of these spikes that occur during a set period of time

orientation can be decoded by changes and spike rates (tuning curve)

90
Q

temporal coding

A

When precise spike timing or high-frequency firing-rate fluctuations are found to carry information

91
Q

rate coding

A

of action potentials/time

the differences in spiking frequency from different stimuli

measuring the number of these spikes that occur during a set period of time

orientation can be decoded by changes and spike rates (tuning curve)

92
Q

Ways of examining circuitry

A

brain activation - heat map
myelination
dti - white matter tracts

93
Q

Movement field

A

(neurons from primary motor cortex have a preference for the orientation of movements)

broadly tuned, very little specificity

94
Q

Ways of examining circuitry

A

brain activation - heat map
myelination
dti - white matter tracts

95
Q

Receptive field

A

relationship between visual stimulus and neural firing induces a metabolic demand

96
Q

tuning curve

A

orientation can be decoded by changes and spike rates

way to describe the preferences a neuron reacts to

97
Q

Population coding

A

summation of input from thousands of units firing

“wisdom of the masses”

98
Q

Cognitive subtraction

A

The idea behind cognitive subtraction is that, by comparing the activity of the brain in a task that utilizes a particular cognitive component (e.g. the visual lexicon) to the activity of the brain in a baseline task that does not, it is possible to infer which regions are specialized for this particular cognitive component

fMRI and PET

99
Q

fMRI designs

A

blocked - segregate diff cog processes into diff time periods
event-related

100
Q

action potentials v. postsynaptic activity

A

local field potential (LFP) : summation of post-synaptic potentials
multi-unit activity (MUA) : action potential spikes

found BOLD signals more correlated to LFP

logothetis

101
Q

exitocins

A

chemicals that overstimulate neuron receptor

nerve cells are damaged or killed by excessive stimulation

102
Q

channel blockers

A

block action potential conduction. Only type that can affect fibers

103
Q

inhibitory neurotransmitter

A

hyperpolarize neurons and drastically reduce probability of firing. Inactivate neuronal cell bodies, where the receptors are located and NOT passing axons

104
Q

Neurotoxin

A

Neurotoxins are toxins that are poisonous or destructive to nerve tissue through inhibition

By inhibiting the ability for neurons to perform their expected intracellular functions, or pass a signal to a neighboring cell, neurotoxins can induce systemic nervous system arrest as in the case of botulinum toxin,[13] or even nervous tissue death

105
Q

contusion

A

orbitofrontal and anterior temporal

Holbourn

106
Q

neuropsychology

A

Neuropsychology is the study of the structure and function of the brain as they relate to specific psychological processes and behaviours

107
Q

TMS

A

measure activity and function of specific brain circuits in humans

connection between the primary motor cortex and a muscle to evaluate damage from stroke

coil magnetic field is used to cause electric current to flow in a small region of the brain via electromagnetic induction.

108
Q

single dissociation

double dissociation

A

single -manipulation leaves one cognitive function (say, A) intact whilst severing another (say, B). This indicates the functions A and B are at least partially independent.

double-

“establishing a single dissociation between two functions provides limited and potentially misleading information, whereas a double dissociation can better demonstrate that the two functions are localized in different areas of the brain

109
Q

magnocellular v. parvocellular

A

Parvocellular: good spatial resolution
The top four are parvocellular layers
receive input from small ganglion cells

Magnocellular: good temporal resolution
LGN cells receive inputs from (large) ganglion cells
bottom 2 layers

110
Q

Contralateral retina

Ispilateral retina

A

ipsi=same side

contra=opposite side

111
Q

Center-surround receptive field

A

There are two types of retinal ganglion cells: “on-center” and “off-center”

on-center cell is stimulated when the center of its receptive field is exposed to light, and is inhibited when the surround is exposed to light

Off-center/surround cells stimulated when surround is exposed to light, inhibited in center

112
Q

Simple cell

Complex cell

A

simple- responds primarily to oriented edges and gratings (bars of particular orientations), tuned to different frequencies and orientations

no center/surround in complex

113
Q

Hypercolumns

A

set of columns that are responsive to all lines of all orientations from a particular region in the visual field and viewed by both eyes

ocular dominance columns (LRLR) bringing together alternations creates depth perception

orientation columns (pinwheel like structure)

114
Q

Quadranopsia

A

only one quarter of the visual field

115
Q

Hemianopsia

A

decreased vision or blindness (anopsia) in half the visual field

116
Q

Scotoma

A

a partial loss of vision or a blind spot in an otherwise normal visual field

117
Q

Binocular Rivalry

A

phenomenon of visual perception in which perception alternates between different images presented to each eye

118
Q

Motion selectivity

Direction selectivity

A

*

119
Q

PPA

A

parahippocampal place area (PPA)

encoding and recognition of environmental scenes

inferior temporo-occipital cortex

120
Q

FFA

A

Inferior temporal cortex (IT)

codes for faces

121
Q

Extrastriate cortex

A

sensitive to motion

122
Q

loss of visual field: variations

A

Quadranopsia - 1/4
Hemianopsia - half of visual field
Scotoma - spot

123
Q

Scientific Reading

A

for binocular vision,

what neurons are uniquely tied to perception, not merely picking up retinal image

124
Q

critique of BOLD

A

logothetis

local field potential (LFP) : summation of post-synaptic potentials
multi-unit activity (MUA) : action potential spikes

found BOLD signals more correlated to LFP

Cognition and the Brain (6 decks)

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