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Animal Biology > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

nervous regulation

A

rapid response which has a short duration and a highly localized affect

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2
Q

hormonal regulation

A

slower to mount a response, long duration, and more systematic affect

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3
Q

paracrine

A

local signals

-delta cells in islets of langerhans in the pancreas

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4
Q

exocrine

A

ducted glands

-sweat and mucus

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5
Q

endocrine

A

ductless gland

-thyroid and adrenal

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6
Q

delta cells in the islets of langerhans

A

release somatostatin which shuts down the releasing of insulin and glucagon in alpha cells

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7
Q

neurotransmitters

A

a chemical messenger that carries a signal from one neuron to another cell/neuron across a synapse

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8
Q

hormone

A

chemical messenger that carries a signal from one cell to another via blood

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9
Q

pheromone

A

a chemical messenger, a smell, that carries a signal between individuals

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10
Q

components of a negative feedback regulatory system

A

monitor- compare actual conditions with a step point
channel- signal conduction (endocrine uses blood, nervous uses neuron’s axons)
effector-cause a response (changes in the actual direction of the set point)

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11
Q

Thyroid glands

A
  • parathyroid on thyroid in throat
  • as people get older, thymus gets smaller
  • thymus produces T cells
  • highest uptake of iodine
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12
Q

pituitary gland

A

neurohypophysis- origin as out pocketing of the brain
adenohypophysis- origin as an out pocketing of the roof of the mouth
-hypothalamus controls both

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13
Q

pancreas

A

has all exocrine glands except islets of langerhans

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14
Q

peptide steroids

A

insulin- 51 amino acids
glucagon- even larger
vasopressin- 9 amino acids

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15
Q

modified amino acids

A
  • tyrosine can be modified to make epinephrine and thyroxine (T4; add second phenyl group)
  • aka added as a catecholamine
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16
Q

modified steroid

A

cholesterol (steroid) can make cortisol (hydrocortisone), estradiol (17beta), and testosterone
-testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, cortisol, and aldosterone

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17
Q

cyclic fatty acids

A

prostaglandins

-F-1alpha or PGF-1alpha

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18
Q

omega-7 fatty acid

A

-first true fatty acid hormone (aka palmitoleate)
-source is liver and fat cells
-stimulates muscle to respond more strongly to insulin
-prevents fat build up in liver
-decreases inflammatory signals from fat cells
Typically too flexible??

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19
Q

kinetic effects of hormones

A

affect secretions of other glands, muscle contraction, and pigment movement
-oxcytocin, melanocyte SH, thyroid SH

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20
Q

metabolic effects of hormones

A

affect aerobic respiration rate, carbo/protein balance for energy, and electrolyte/H2O balance
-thyroxin, growth hormones, cortisol

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21
Q

morphogenetic effects of hormones

A

affect growth, regeneration, metamorphosis, and sexual development
-growth hormone, luteinizing hormone, thyroxine (in frog metamorphisis)

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22
Q

behavioral effects of hormones

A

sensitization to particular stimuli and affect developing nervous system
-epinephrine, omega 7 (both sensitize tissues to other signals)

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23
Q

amplification cascade using cAMP

A

hormone (epinephrine of glucagon)will activate adenylate cyclase via a G protein

  1. adenylate cyclase uses ATP to make cAMP (cAMP removes regulator/inhibitor from PKA and inhibits glucagon synthetase)
  2. PKA phosphorylates/activates phosphorylase kinase
  3. phos kinase adds a phosphate to phosphorylase b (making phosphorylase a)
  4. phosphorylase a cleaves glucose fro glycogen making glucose-1-p
  5. G-1P to G-6-P by PGM and G-6-P to glucose by hexose phosphatase
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24
Q

cAMP

A

activates the glycogenolytic pathway and inhibits glycogen synthsis pathway
-both effects are by activating PKA

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25
Q

anterior pituitary

A
  • connected to hypothalamus via small portal vein (hypothalamohypophysial portal vein)
  • produces and releases 7 hormones based on hormones (Releasing and Inhibiting factors) from hypothalamus
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26
Q

posterior pituitatry

A
  • stores two hormones produced by hypothalamus
  • releases each on neural signals from hypothalamus
  • transported through axons
  • vasopressin (ADH) and oxytocin
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27
Q

hypothalamus

A
  • secretes releasing or inhibiting hormones into blood capillaries
  • part of nervous and endocrine system
  • delivered by hypothalamohypophysial portal veins
  • each regulates the secretion of a specific anterior pituitary hormone
  • neuron release signal into primary capillary-> portal venules-> anterior pituitary->second capillary bed
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28
Q

7 hormones in anterior pituitary

A
  • Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
  • adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  • Growth hormone (GH)
  • gonadotropic hormones- in male and female but do different things (follicle stimulating hormone FSH, luteinizing hormone LH)
  • prolactin- affect mammary glands (PR/PRL)
  • melanocyte stimulating hormones- affect melanocytes in amphibians (MSH)
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29
Q

oxytocin

A

affects muscles of uterus and mammary gland

  • uterine contractions
  • milk let down in nursing
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30
Q

Vasopressin/antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

A

kidney tubules

  • hormone released due to higher K and Na concentration
  • changes membrane potential and fluid osmolality-hypothalamus causes posterior pituitary to release ADH
  • decrease in urine production via increased permeability to water in collecting debt membranes (involves increased density of aquaporin)
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31
Q

Releasing and inhibitory factors

A 
metabolic
-TSH- releasing
-GH- releasing and inhibiting
-ACTH- releasing
gonadotropins
-LH- releasing
-FSH- releasing
other
-MSH- releasing
-PL- releasing and inhibiting
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32
Q

Growth hormone

A
  • somatotropin
  • polypeptide hormone
  • stimulates growth and reproduction
  • bones and muscles
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33
Q

robert wadlow

A

never stopped growing

-GH

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34
Q

acromegaly

A

restarting GH expression in adults

  • face changes shape
  • fingers elongate
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35
Q

thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

A

causes the thyroid gland to produce 2 thyroxine hormones

  • triiodothyronine (T3)
  • tetraidothyronine- better in metabolism but gets changed to T3 (T4)
  • glycoprotein
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36
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A
  • circadian rhythm
  • stimulates cortex of the adrenal gland
  • boosts the synthesis of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids)
  • cortex also produces mineralocorticoids and sex steroids/androgens (only important in the onset of puberty) that are not affected by ACTH
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37
Q

gonadotropins

A
  • protein hormones secreted by gonadotropic cells of the anterior pituitary gland of vertebrates
  • stimulate metabolic activity in gonads
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38
Q

Luteinizing hormone

A
  • tiggers ovulation and affects corpus luetum in females

- testosterone in males

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39
Q

follicle stimulating hormone

A

females: stimulates the maturation of ovarian follicles to graafian follicles
males: enhances production of androgen-binding protein by the sertoli cells of the testes and is critical for spermatogenisis

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40
Q

Hormones structures

A
  • most are dipeptide
  • LH, FSH, TSH, and hCG have the same alpha subunits, beta subunits make them differ
  • these hormones are glycoproteins
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41
Q

MSH in amphibians and reptiles

A
  • stimulate the production and release of melanin by melanocytes
  • in mammals MSH suppresses appetite with CCK and GIP
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42
Q

prolactin

A

stimulates mammary glands to produce milk

-some newborn males produce witches milk

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43
Q

neurons cell body

A

produces ADH and releases it from posterior pituitary in response to neural stimulation
-end of axon

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44
Q

thyroid regulation

A
  • set point of .0008 mg% of T3 and T4

- helps control our body temp; pyrogens reset temp to higher

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45
Q

thyroid effects

A
  • helps set children growth rates

- sets body’s basal metabolic rate (oxidative respiration

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46
Q

thyroxine

A

affects metamorphisis in amphibians:

  • hypothalamus stimulates adenohypophysis for TSH in pre
  • TSH stimulates thyroid for thyroxine in pro

-affects water and salt balance in fish

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47
Q

fish reproduction

A
  • salmon reproduce in freshwater and grow in salt (anadromous)
  • american eel reproduce in salt water and grow in fresh (catadromous)
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48
Q

thyroid diseases

A
  • not enough iodine = goiter

- hyperthyroidism (graves disease)- causes goiters

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49
Q

plasma calcium regulation

A
  • thyroid gland secretes calcitonin which stimulates Ca ions into bone via osteocytes called osteoblasts; Ca out of blood stream is used to build bone
  • parathyroid gland secretes PTH which causes Ca mobilization via osteocytes called osteoclasts and affects kidney
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50
Q

effects of PTH

A
  • caused by low Ca2 in blood
  • increased absorption of Ca in intestines, osteoporosis
  • kidney reabsorb Ca2 and excrete PO4
  • osteoclasts absorb Ca and excrete Ca2
  • increase Ca2
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51
Q

adrenal gland

A
  • outer=cortex, inner=medulla
  • regulation of cortex (50 hormones)
  • sensors and hormones that regulate cortex
  • glucocoticoids- cortisol
  • mineralcorticoid from cortex- aldosterone
  • sex hormones
  • neural regulation of medulla (epinephrine and nor-epinephrine)
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52
Q

cortisol

A
  • glucose homeostasis
  • increases blood glucose level by inhibiting other cells from pulling glucose off of blood stream (epinephrine does too)
  • high levels can cause depression; anti depression drugs block cortisol receptors
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53
Q

aldosterone

A
  • acts on kidney to reabsorb Na and water out of distal tubule of nephron to produce less urine (active)
  • reabsorbtion is controlled by renin from JGA, angiotensin 1 and 2
  • causes secretion of K into distal tubule of nephron
  • (adrenal cortex mineralcorticoid)
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54
Q

increased concentration of Na

A

JGA releases more renin which produces angiotensin 1 from the liver secreted blood protein angiotensinogen

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55
Q

ACE

A
  • converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2
  • angiotensin 2 causes vasoconstriction and increases adrenal cortex release of aldosterone
  • aldosterone decreases urine production via increased sodium
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56
Q

sex hormones

A

-androgens from adrenal gland move to gonads and jump start puberty

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57
Q

medulla of adrenal

A

epinephrine and nor-epinephrine

-fight or flight

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58
Q

epinephrine

A
  • adrenaline
  • causes increase in blood flow by increased rate of contractions and increase pressure in periphery via beta receptors in arterioles
  • increases heart rate
  • mobilize fat for energy
  • enhance supply of oxygen and energy giving compounds
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59
Q

nor-epinephrine

A

causes vasoconstriction in periphery (reduced flow) via alpha receptors in arterioles and increases stoke volume (per contraction)

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60
Q

reproduction

A

XX= ovary (no SRY)
XY= testis (SRY for puberty)
-7th week SRY is produced

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61
Q

male reproduction

A
  1. LH targets the interstitial cells between seminiferous tubules or the seritoli cells
  2. LH tells leydig cells in testis -> testosterone-> secondary sex characteristics (hypothalamic response)
  3. FSH tells seritoli cells -> spermogenisis-> proteins that regulate (hypothalamic control)
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62
Q

female hormonal control

A
  1. GnRH from hypothalamus (one for FSH and one for LH)
    2.FSH and LH released from anterior pituitary
    LH-> progesterone
    FSH-> estradiol
    -estrogen and progesterone from ovary (inhibitor from ovarian granulocyte cells)
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63
Q

FSH and LH in females

A

FSH- stimulates growth of ovarian follicles and secretor of estradiol
LH- stimulates ovulation, conversion of remnants of ovarian graafian follicle into corpus leutem (stimulates estradiol and progesterone)

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64
Q

corpus leutem

A

produce and release estradiol and progesterone (negative feedback)

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65
Q

ovarian cycle

A
  • follicular- dev. of eggs and follicle growth
  • ovulation- peak of LH and FSH
  • leuteal phase- follicle reminants for corpus lute which secretes hormones
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66
Q

mouse ovary

A

estrus - ready for implantation and high secretion
diestrus
-makes mCG instead of hCG

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67
Q

human ovary

A

menses- period of lots of bleeding at the beginning of the follicular stage
proliferate phase- endometrium builds and enriches blood for fetus
secretory (luteal) phase- thickened endometrium becomes secretory

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68
Q

estradiol

A

causes peak of LH and FSH which starts ovicular cycle

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69
Q

hCG

A
  • when embryo implants it increases the production it first thing
  • prevents menses or flow
  • secreted by proto placenta (trophoblast)
  • signals corpus luteum to continue progesterone production for first trimester (replaces LH influence)
  • most frequently produced by a newly planted embryo in the uterus
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70
Q

start of second trimester

A
  • placenta takes over production of estradiol and progesterone from ovaries
  • many spontaneous abortions at this time
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71
Q

birth control

A

progesterone at lowest possible dose to inhibit ovulation by inhibiting LH release

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72
Q

Hormones for birth

A
  • hypothalamus releases CRH to anterior pituitary which releases ACTH, which signals adrenal gland to make cortisol and in fetus DHEAS
  • cortisol stimulates placenta to make prostaglandins and placenta CRH (positive feedback to adrenal gland)
  • DHEAS->dhydroplandrosterone->estradiol-> estriol
  • prostaglandins, estriol, and oxcytocin stimulate uterus wall
  • uterus wall applies pressure
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73
Q

affect of prostaglandins, estriol, and oxytocin stimulating the uterine wall

A

-increased gap junctions in myometrium
-increased receptors for oxcytocin and prostaglandins
(prepares for uterus to apply pressure)

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74
Q

regulating blood glucose leves

A

use the hormones, insulin and glucagon, which have opposing actions
-after eating there is increased insulin production by beta cells, making glucose go into cells instead of blood
-between meals there is increased glucagon production by alpha cells, making glycogen hydrolyze to glucose
(setpoint is 80mg of glucose per 100 mL of blood)

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75
Q

melatonin

A
  • amino acid derivative (from trp)
  • produced by pineal gland
  • circadian rhythm- wake/sleep, seasonal breeders (nose)
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76
Q

alleles

A 
determine age at first reproduction of platyfish
-some mature at different times
-at a gene expressed in pineal gland
(melatonin)
-depends on smell too
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77
Q

endocrine disrupters (mimics)

A

dioxin, PCB, DDT (DDE)

  • development, sex issues, cancer
  • agonist and antagonist of hormone receptors
  • ecdysone and juvenile hormone cause bigger larvae
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78
Q

kidneys

A
  • keep the good metabolites, get rid of waste, and adjust ion concentrations and Ph
  • outer layer cortex, inner layer medulla
  • adrenal gland on top
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79
Q

Fresh water fish

A
  • saltier than their surroundings so water enters their body through osmosis
  • solutes tend to leave
  • large glomerulus
  • dont drink
  • reabsorb ions using gills
  • lots of dilute urine
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80
Q

salt water fish

A
  • water leaves body through osmosis
  • solutes tend to enter
  • drink sea water
  • excrete ions using gills
  • highly concentrated urine
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81
Q

filtration

A

-arterial pressure forces most of fluid and dissolved materials into nephron tubules lumen or bowmans capsule

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82
Q

Kidney failure

A

proteins don’t leave blood vessels but if they do and go into nephron then you will go into kidney failure

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83
Q

selective resorption

A

cells in the lining of the proximal convoluted tubule pull glucose and amino acids out of the filtrate (active transport)

  • most of K and bicarbonate retained in body
  • 20% Na, urea, ammonium, and uric acid kept in the filtrate
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84
Q

secretion

A

some waste products transported into proximal tubule of nephron, some ions (K and H) secreted into distal tubule

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85
Q

Na and Cl ions

A

sodium ions are actively transported out and chloride follows or vice versa
-either way salt is pumped out of ascending side of loop of Henley

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86
Q

synthesis

A

synthesis of waste “N” materials, including para-aminohippuric acid into proximal tubule and ammonium chloride (NH3Cl) into distal tubule

87
Q

collecting duct

A

another target of hormones

  • vassopressin increase urine by putting more aquaporin in
  • urine becomes more concentrated
88
Q

atrial natrouric peptide

A
  • made and secreted from right atrium of heart
  • inhibits ADH, renin, and aldosterone
  • promotes vasodialation
  • keeps sodium in tubule, keeps water in filtrate, make more urine
89
Q

Kidney functions

A
  1. catabolism of amino acids: form ammonia in liver
  2. retain good metabolites (amino acids, glucose) in body
  3. regulate Ph (7.4)
  4. maintain normal osmotic pressure in body fluids
  5. maintain correct concentrations of important ions (Na, K, Ca, HCO3, PO4) in fluids
90
Q

blood pressure affecting kideys

A

High BP: kidneys increase excretion of salt and water caused by ANP, blood volume decreases
Low BP: kidneys decrease excretion of salt and water caused by aldosterone and vasopressin, blood volume increases

91
Q

local potentials

A

or receptor/graded potentials

  • size of change in vm is relative to stimulus intensity
  • the magnitude of a local potential is proportional to the intensity of the stimuli
  • more intense stimuli cause more ion channels to open or they stay open longer (greater changes in membrane potential, hyper or depolarization)
  • greater voltage change -> LP signal goes further (propagate by diffusion)
  • spreads by diffusion so further areas have weaker potential
  • LP amplitude changes with its propagation (speed)
92
Q

receptor stimuli

A
  • tactive sensations, temp, pressure
  • post synaptic potentials that arise from electrical (ionic) and secretory activity from other cells
  • spatial relationship
  • dues to opening and closing of ion channels
93
Q

primary and secondary receptor stimuli

A

secondary: specialized cells that communicate to sensory cells
primary: portion of sensory neuron and cell

94
Q

Na, K, and Cl roles in AP and LP

A
  • depolarize (open ion channel) to start it (only Na ion channel)
  • to hyperpolarize open Cl or K ion channel
95
Q

synaptic transmission

A
  • chemical and electrical (in gap junctions) synapses-cytoplasm
  • Ca flux in bouton
96
Q

electrical synapse (gap junctions)

A

involve direct cytoplasmic contact between cells through gap junctions, generally found in brain (rigid)

97
Q

chemical synapse

A

released neurotransmitters diffuse across a cleft between cells, affecting ligand-gated channels on the postsynaptic membrane (also in brain)

98
Q

synaptic transmission in chemical synapse

A
  • action potential arrives at synaptic knob
  • Ca and Na ions influx via voltage-gated ion channels
  • ca-gated channels for K efflux (repolarization)
  • synaptic vesicles fuse with cell membrane (Ca role)
  • release of euro transmitter from presynaptic
  • NT diffuses across synaptic cleft
  • NT binds to its receptor on post synaptic membrane
99
Q

2 types of chemical synapse

A

fast- receptor is the channel

slow- g-protein opens channel and receptor activates G protein (intracellular messenger)

100
Q

neurotransmitters released by synaptic vesicle (30)

A
  • acetylcholine- released by cholergenic synapse
  • dopamine- parkinsons, affects body movements
  • norepinephrine- released by adrenergic synapse, filtering of a signal from one cell to next (mitochondria destroy)
  • serotonin- depression, regulates sleep and emotions (affected by project and LSD)
101
Q

NT effect on postsynaptic cell

A

depends on channel coupled to receptor, IPSP and EPSP

  • na influx- EPSP, depolarizes and brings toward threshold
  • k efflux- IPSP- hyperpolarizes
  • cl influx- IPSP
102
Q

spatial summation

A

IPSPs and EPSPs arrive at axonal hillic are continuously monitored by the voltage gated channels, LPs arrive from various locations (synaptic integration)

103
Q

temporal summation

A

IPSPs and EPSPs arrive at axonal hill are continuously monitored by the voltage-gated channels, LPs arrive at different moments with lingering effects on local ion concentrations

104
Q

neural integration at axonal hillic

A
  • small EPSPs add together to bring the membrane potential closer to the threshold
  • IPSPs subtract from the depolarizing affect of EPSPs
105
Q

glutamate

A

the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate CNS producing excitatory postsynaptic potentials (due to opening Na channels)

106
Q

origin of membrane resting potential (vm)

A
  • 70mv
  • inside of cell (-) relative to outside
  • sodium K pump
  • ion channels
  • proteins, nucleic acids
  • positively charge ions in and out of cell
  • neg. charge anions fixed inside cell (proteins and nucleic acid)
  • electrochemical equilibrium
107
Q

major cations

A

Na and K

  • different permeabilities (Na is less, K is more)
  • sodium high outside cell, K high inside cell
108
Q

electrical gradient

A

causes ions to e attracted to ions or molecules with opposite charge
-each ion moves from high to low concetration

109
Q

gated channels

A

ligand gated: ion channels that open or close in response to a messenger (neurotransmitter)
-will open and let K or Na through (ion specific)
voltage gated: membrane potential shifted enough
-threshold
(both only open for a period of time)

110
Q

open channels

A

ion leak channels formless through membrane allowing constant flow of ions by simple diffusion

  • K leak channel
  • movement is net of 0, excess potassium held them due to proteins and nucleic acids
111
Q

Na and K pump role

A
  • maintains concentration gradients
  • moves by ATP
  • 3 Na out, 2 K in
  • irrelevant to neural signals
  • only important across long term, sustaining long term concentration of K and Na
  • 500 ions across membrane
112
Q

action potential

A

-nerve impulse on axon

a brief reversal of electric polarization of the cell membrane of a neuron or muscle cell

113
Q

mylienated nerves

A
  • white matter
  • lightly wrap around membrane
  • action potentials have to have exposed cell membrane to occur
  • will skip to nodes (saltitory conduction or rapid signal conduction)
  • mylein sheaths speed up action potentials
114
Q

voltage Na channel

A
  • two gates

- one open and one closed

115
Q

action potential characteristics

A
  1. all or none- voltage gated Na channels open completely at threshold (not above or below)
  2. uniform amplitude during propagation
  3. invariant- always the same number generated
116
Q

refracting period

A

Na gates cannot re-open immediately after they have close

-has 2 gates

117
Q

nitric oxide

A

a gas that easily diffuse from presynaptic neuron into postsynaptic neuron
-neurotransmitter

118
Q

ATP

A

a neurotransmitter for some neurons in brain

119
Q

spinal cord

A

cable of neurons extending from the brain down through the backbone

  • protected by vertebral column and layers of membranes (meninges)
  • relays messages and functions in reflexes
120
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

axons of sensory neurons enter the dorsal surface of the spinal cord and form the dorsal root of the spinal nerve

  • motor axons leave from the ventral surface and form the ventral root
  • cell bodies of sensory neurons are grouped together outside each level of the spinal cord in dorsal root ganglia
121
Q

pathway

A
  • reflex arc structure (controllable or not)
  • sensor (may or may not be a part of sensory neuron)
  • sensory (afferent) neuron (bring info to CNS)
  • interneuron (within CNS)
  • motor (efferent) neuron (signals from CNS), 1 if reflex arc and 2 if autonomic (visceral) reflex arc
  • effector (often a muscle), 2nd motor neuron
122
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A
  • 1st motor neurons cell body is craniosacral
  • long 1st motor neuron axon, ganglion for 2nd motor neuron is on rear and large
  • 2nd motor neuron (short axon) releases acetylcholine
123
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A
  • 1st motor neuron’s (short) cell body is thoracic-lumbar (middle)
  • long 2nd motor neuron axon, ganglion for 2nd motor neuron is near spinal cord
  • 2nd motor neuron releases nor-epinephrine
124
Q

knee jerk

A
  • one of the fastest reflexes
  • directly onto motor neuron in spine
  • no interneuron
125
Q

gray matter

A

axons coming in from periphery from dorsal root also are wrapped in myelin sheath

126
Q

4 groupings of white matter

A
  • 2 going to brain, 2 going from brain

- sensory and motor up and down spinal cord

127
Q

frog spinal cord reactions

A

-coordinatng response capability exists in the spinal cod
-vinegar is really obnoxious, shocks are just irritating
-when at same time both reactions are slower (evaluating)
-depolarize
(CNS still active without brain)

128
Q

spinal cord evaluations

A
  • evaluates the strength of input
  • can control some fairly sophisticated responses
  • cross communication helps ??
129
Q

forebrain

A
  • cerebrum-higher cognitive function
  • left is language, right is spatial
  • corpus callosum: connects 2 hemispheres
  • hippocampus: part of limbic system, memory and emotion
  • hypothalamus: controls basic drives
130
Q

wernickes area

A

-speech understanding/interpretation

131
Q

left cerebrum

A

controls right side motor and sensation

132
Q

cerebral cortex

A

face uses huge chunk of it and hand does too

133
Q

phantom limb phenomenon

A

contralateral reporting and control

134
Q

word understanding in brain

A
  • hearing words is middle
  • seeing words is back
  • speaking words is middle
  • generating words is front
135
Q

language in cerebrum

A
  • language is on one side of the head
  • other side can take over if side has transitory interruption (needs corpus callosum)
  • 90% of righties and 67% of lefties have language in left hemisphere
  • thats why effects of stoke aren’t always the same
136
Q

aphasia

A

speaking difficulties

-very complicated

137
Q

speaking a heard word

A

wrenches area- hearing vibration pattern, interprets as a set of instructions of what the word is
brocas area-decides what they said

138
Q

speaking a written word

A
  • recorded to back of brain through eyes
  • wernickes area- pattern is recognized as letters and words and put together
  • brocas area- how to say the word
  • instructions sent to motor cortex
139
Q

strokes and brain control

A

Right handed:
-stroke on left side: poor motor control on right side, do recognize the implications of this limitation
left handed:
-stroke on right side: poor motor control on left side, do not recognize the implications of this limitation (spatial reasoning)

140
Q

sensory mechanisms

A

introception- detect stimuli arising within body (itch)

extroception-detect stimuli arising from outside body

141
Q

stimuli interpretation pattern

A
  1. detection- reaches receptor cells that are specific for types of stimuli
  2. transduction- stimulus converted to electrochemical signal (amplification cascade)
    - receptor protein is activated
    - cascade modifies intracellular second messengers
    - ion channels open
    - change in conductance produces a receptor current
    - receptor current charges Vm=LP
  3. transmission- # and/or frequency of APs conducted along axon, AP sent to brain by ganglion cells via their axons
  4. interpretation of signals resides in brain, the region of brain defines its interpretation
142
Q

3 types of receptors

A

chemoreceptors: taste and olfaction
mechanoreceptors: touch, hearing, and balance
energy-detecting receptors (electromagnetic, photoreceptors, and thermoreceptors): sight and temp
-taste, hearing, and sight are senses that use secondary sense organs

143
Q

sense pathway

A

energy, membrane receptor, G protein, enzyme, second messenger, ion channel

144
Q

thermoreceptor

A

-all in hypothalamus for blood
cold sensor- common and shallow in skin
-stimulated as temp drop, inhibited as temp is rising
warm sensor- deeper in dermis

145
Q

pain and touch

A

primary sense organs

pain: free endings of sensory neurons, shallow
pressure: specialized structures at the tips of sensory neurons (deeper as they are listed:
- merckel cell, shallow
- meissener corpuscle
- ruffini corpuscle
- pacimian corpuscle, deep

146
Q

taste

A
  • taste buds located deep inside pits along the tongue, not limited to one kind of chemical
  • receptors or microvilli
  • specialized cells that make taste a secondary sense organ
  • cells drip on nerve fibers which are sent to brain
  • different second messengers play role in tasting things
147
Q

olfaction

A
  • olfactory neurons can regenerate, cranial nerve 1
  • olfactory bulb has neurons that go inside nasal passages (little specialized)
  • mucous layer covers exposed cilia that have reeptor protein, has to dissolve through
  • primary sense organ
148
Q

smell pathway

A

receptor, G protein, adenylate cyclase, converts ATP to cAMP, oopens ion channel

149
Q

umami

A
  • fifth taste

- savory, related to dietary glutamate

150
Q

taste cranial nerves

A

7th: sweet, salty, 1/2 sour
9th: bitter and 1/2 sour

151
Q

hair cells

A

specialized secondary sense organs

  • stereocilia: group of smell cilia (true cilia are independent and nose ones are a unit)
  • kinocilium
  • pushed to one side or another creates IPSP or EPSP
  • if dissociated it drips and goes to brain
152
Q

brain selective listening

A

-ignore by IPSP to offset EPSP

153
Q

lateral line in fish

A
  • lets fluid move in and displace the stereo cilia that are covered by cupulalgol
  • detect pressure waves outside (big fish)
154
Q

the inner ear

A
  • round window flexes to relieve pressure

- cilium work as unit, has exten

155
Q

cochlea

A

3 fluid filled chambers, coiled

-hearing

156
Q

semi circular canals

A

have cilia, fluid filled

-angular motion

157
Q

pinna

A

outer ear, collects vibrations

158
Q

3 bones in ear

A

mallet, incus, stapes- amplify it and push on oval window which flexes to relieve pressure

159
Q

cilium in ear

A

work as a unit, have extensions into fluid of semicircular canals

160
Q

endolymph

A

fluid in semcircular canal

161
Q

hydrophilic hormones

A
  • secretory vesicles secrete hormones directly into blood stream, because lipids can go through membranes
  • hormones then reach membrane receptors on target cell (on membrane)
  • activate enzymes (adenylate cyclase) via G proteins
  • second messenger generated activates protein kinases which activate amplification (enzyme) cascades that determine response
    ex: glucagon and epinehrine
162
Q

lipophilic hormones

A
  • same as hydrophilic
  • find nuclear receptor of target cell (in cytoplasm)
  • cause changes in gene regulation
  • major component of blood plasma can not effectively transport these hormones without their carrier (transport proteins)
    ex: estrogen and throxine
163
Q

Ca ions

A
  • can activate amplification cascades via calcium dependent kinases
  • can change gene expression via calcitonin
  • have to be released via ITP or IP3 or by an influx from extracellular fluids
  • causes release of NT by presynaptic neuron
164
Q

glycoproteins

A
  • alpha subunits are the same and beta subunits differ

- the protein gets made, is sent to golgi,and carbs are added

165
Q

insects and hormones

A
  • molting, pupation, eclosion
  • neurosecretory cells, corpus circadian and altar
  • prothoracic gland- PTTH and ecdysone
  • nerve cord- eclosion and bursicon
  • JH goes down right before it becomes an adult (high unless pupa)
166
Q

response to bear

A
  • hypothalamus activates sympathetic division of NS
  • HR, BP, and respiration rate increase
  • Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and nor-epinephrine
  • blood flow to skeletal muscle increases, stomach contractions inhibited
167
Q

concentration gradient

A
  • makes ions move from high concentration to low
  • Na conc. higher on outside
  • K conc. higher on inside
  • Cl conc. low inside since like charges repel
168
Q

saltatory conduction

A

rapid signaling conduction

-goes from node to node

169
Q

reflex arc

A

the general flow of signals within the nervous system

170
Q

recycling NT

A
  1. cholergenic synapse- acetylcholinesterase (also present in neuromuscular junction) breaks apart acetylcholine, inhibiting first thing, choline reabsorbed, acetylcholine is made
  2. adrenergic synapse:
    - COMT- enzyme adds methyl group to nor-epinephrine, making it inactive, the presynaptic cell absorbs it
    - MAO- destroys NT in mitochondria
171
Q

ganglion vs nucleus

A
  • both are clusters of cell bodies of neurons
  • nuclei in brain and spinal cord
  • ganglion are not
172
Q

acetylcholine

A

binds to receptor proteins in postsynaptic membrane

  • Na ion channels; opens them
  • EPSP
173
Q

glycine and GABA

A
  • glycine is an amino acid
  • IPSP
  • open K or Cl channels
174
Q

neuropeptides

A

substance P; activated by painful stimuli

  • perception of intensity depends on enkephalins and endorphins (endogenous opiates)
    ex. runners high
175
Q

somatic NS

A
  • skeletal muscle
  • excitation
  • single effector cell
  • 1 motor neuron
  • acetylcholine
176
Q

autonomic NS

A
  • cardiac and smooth muscle, GI tract, blood vessels, airways, endocrine glands
  • excitation or inhibition
  • dual effector cells
  • 2 motor pathways
  • acetylcholine (parasympathetic) and norepinephrine (sympathetic)
177
Q

parasympathetic vs sympathetic

A

eyes: S dilates, P constrics
heart: S speed up, P slows down
gut: S decreases secretion (stomach) and motility (large intestine), P increases

178
Q

Brain evolution

A
  • trend is for expanding cortical portion of cerebral hemispheres
  • increases amount of cerebral cortex
179
Q

Brain lobes

A

Frontal- seat of intelligence
occipital- visual cortex
temporal- auditory cortex

180
Q

somatosensory cortex

A

interprets sensory puts from various body parts

181
Q

Primary motor cortex

A

generate motor response (counter lateral control)

182
Q

brocas area

A

speech generation

183
Q

angular gyrus

A

language interpretation

184
Q

amygdala

A
  • part of rewards center

- limbic system

185
Q

thalamus

A

relay (routing) for sensory and motor tracts for autonomic functions
-switch controls

186
Q

midbrain

A

reflexes affecting eyes and ears

187
Q

hindbrain

A
  • controls basic functions
  • medulla oblongata- basic functions, HR and breathing
  • Pons- reticular activating system (waking up in the middle of the night)
  • cerebellum- coordination, balance, adjusting movement
188
Q

functions assignable to regions

A

hearing words- middle
seeing words- back
speaking- middle high
generating- front and brokers

189
Q

orientation

A

deflection of stereo cilia sends signal to brain about movement/orientation relative to earth

  • utricle- horizontal
  • saccule-verticle
  • semicircular- acceleration
190
Q

otoliths

A

embedded in amophous mass

191
Q

hearing

A
  • basilar membrane moves up and down
  • high frequency causes base to vibrate
  • low frequency causes end/apex to vibrate
  • low frequency goes further distances
192
Q

perfect pitch

A

ability to detect high and low frequency accurately

193
Q

auditory repoting

A

-single hair cell sends info to both sides
dorsal cochlear nuclei: sends info side to side
ventral: up and down

194
Q

vertebrate eye

A
  • one retina, single lens
  • lens changes shade to refocus image on reina
  • glasses alter waves of light to focus image on retina
195
Q

insect eye

A
  • compound eye: lots of lenses
  • goes to optic nerve then brain (no retina)
  • good at picking up movement
196
Q

Inside the eye

A
  • lenses flip and invert image on fovea (where greatest detail can be observed)
  • parts of the eye away from macular only see light and not color
  • cones detect color
197
Q

nearsighted

A

image is reflected in front

-farsighted image is in back

198
Q

rods

A
  • detect light
  • sacs of membranes
  • embedded in dark pigment area
  • several rods to each bipolar cell
199
Q

cones

A
  • nucleus, sacs of membrane that detect color
  • pointed away from coracoid area in back
  • embedded in dark pigment area
  • blue, green, red
  • in fovea of macular
  • each has its own bipolar cell
200
Q

rhodopsin

A

light sensitive pigment in rods

  • light changes their shape
  • ions cannot enter discs anymore
  • embedded in dark pigment area
201
Q

convert light into membrane potential change

A
  • G protein activate
  • PDE activated
  • breaks down cGMP to GMP
  • gates close
202
Q

Photoreceptors in dark

A
  • G protein and phosphodiesters not active
  • GTP -> cGMP, binds to Na channel, opens channels
  • depolarizing results in driving NTs onto bipolar cells
203
Q

Photoreceptors in light

A
  • cis retinal to trans retinal (change in shape)
  • G protein and phosphodiesters active
  • cGMP to GMP
  • Na ions do not enter disc
  • polarized- no dripping
204
Q

bipolar cells spontaneous depolarization

A
  • without stimulus when light present
  • NT dripping causes IPSP on polar cells, offsets depolarization
  • NT dripped on ganglion cell, signal sent that there is light
  • light produces signals
205
Q

horizontal and amercing cells

A

refine edges where light is and is not

206
Q

retinal organization

A

goal is to send info about dots of light to brains visual cortex

207
Q

hierarchical reporting

A
  • optic nerve
  • optic chiasm
  • lateral geniculate nucleus
  • simple cells- bars
  • complex cells- orient bars of light relative to each other
  • hypercomplex cells- smooths image
208
Q

upsilon cells

A
  • special unicellular motion detectors
  • in cortex
  • known in cats for long time
  • recently founding mokeys
209
Q

magnetic receptors

A

allow birds to orient long distance migrations

-magnets disrupt capability

210
Q

electroreceptors

A

allow predatory fish to detect movement of prey

211
Q

thermoreceptors

A

allows pit vipers to find endothermic (warm blooded) prey in the dark

212
Q

3 characteristics of all sense organs

A
  1. specific environmental stimuli
  2. transduce stimuli into electrochemical signal
  3. amplify stimulus to generate AP
213
Q

senses

A

rely on portions of sensory neurons (primary sense organs) or on specialized cells (secondary) that relay info to a sensory neuron

Animal Biology (6 decks)

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