Issues and Debates Flashcards
(33 cards)
Define Gender Bias
The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences.
Define Alpha bias
Give an example
A tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women, causing theories that devalue one gender in comparison to another. E.g. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory viewed femininity as failed masculinity; women had penis envy and were morally inferior.
Define Androcentrism
Centred or focused on men, often to the neglect or exclusion of women.
Define Beta bias
Give an example
A tendency to ignore or minimise differences between men and women. Such theories tend either to ignore questions about the lives of women, or assume that insights derived from studies of men will apply equally as well to women. E.g. Stress research based on male responses and assumed women responded in the same way- Taylor et al. argued for a different tend-and-befriend.
Define universality
The aim to develop theories that will apply to all people, which may include real differences.
Evaluate Gender bias
- Feminist Psychology- agrees there are real biological differences but socially determined stereotypes make a far greater contribution to perceived differences-redress the balance by using evidence that women may be inferior to provide women with greater support.
- Bias in research methods- poor methodology (single-sex samples, male-only experimenters) may disadvantage one gender.
- Reverse alpha bias- develop theories which show the differences between men and women but emphasise the value of women-change perceptions with research that shows instances where women are better.
- Avoiding beta bias- Hare-Mustin and Maracek=equal rights may disadvantage women because they do have different needs, e.g. equal parental leave ignores special biological demands on women.
Define cultural bias
Refer to alpha & beta bias
- The tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions. Distorts or biases your judgement.
- Alpha bias refers to theories that assume there are real and enduring differences between cultural groups e.g. the distinction often made between individualist and collectivist cultures (difference not found in meta-analysis of conformist behaviour-Takano & Osaka).
- Beta bias refers to theories that ignore or minimise cultural differences-assume that all people are the same-reasonable to use same theories/methods with all cultural groups- e.g. psychologists assume that their view of intelligence applies to all cultures equally- western-based IQ tests used to measure other cultural groups who then appear less intelligent (imposed etic)-western cultures see intelligence as something within the individual whereas collectivist cultures like Ugandan society sees intelligence as a functional relationship depending on shared knowledge between the individual society (Wober, 1974)
Define cultural relativism
Refer to alpha & beta bias
The view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates.
- Alpha bias: where the assumption of real differences leads psychologists to overlook universals e.g. Margaret Mead’s research in Papua New Guinea-initially concluded there were significant gender differences due to culture-later recognised there were universals (probably related to biology)-that the men in all cultures were more aggressive than the women.
- Beta bias: may mistakenly assume symptoms of mental disorder are universal (e.g. hearing voices); results in misdiagnosis of Sz.
Define ethnocentrism
Refer to alpha & beta bias
The use of our own ethnic or cultural group as a basis for judgments about other groups-tendency to view beliefs, customs and behaviours of our own group as ‘normal’ and even superior-others are ‘strange’ or deviant.
Alpha bias: ones own culture is considered different and better-other cultures and their practices are devalued e.g. individualist attitudes towards attachment where independence is valued and dependence is undesirable- dependence in other cultures is more desirable.
Beta bias: If psychologists believe there world view is the only view- e.g. IQ tests- assumed it was applicable to use American IQ tests all over the world due to an assumption that the American standard was universal.
Evaluate cultural bias
- Indigenous psychologies: counter ethnocentrism by encouraging the development of different groups of theories in different countries (indigenous)-e.g. Afrocentrism seeks to understand the culture of Africans
- Bias in research methods: dealt with by using studies with samples from different cultural groups.
- Consequences of cultural bias: results of American IQ test showed that European immigrants fell slightly below white Americans in terms of IQ, and African Americans at the bottom of scale with lowest mental age- caused profound effects on attitudes held by Americans towards certain groups (black people and south eastern Europeans)-enduring stereotypes of certain ethnic groups and their IQ (Gould, 1981).
- The worldwide psychology community: Increased travel of researchers=increased understanding of other cultures-academics hold international conferences where researchers from many different counties and cultures meet and discuss ideas=greater exchange of ideas=reduce ethnocentrism, enable an understanding of cultural relativism and mean that real differences are identified an valued.
Outline the nature argument
Refer to Genetic and evolutionary explanations
- Nature= innate influences which may appear at any stage of life.
- Genetic= Family, twin and adoption studies show that the closer two individuals are genetically, more likely that both of them will develop same behaviours- concordance rate for SZ=40% (MZ), 7% (DZ)- Therefore nature has a major contribution in the disorder.
- Evolutionary= a behaviour or characteristic that promotes survival and reproduction will be naturally selected-they are adaptive, genes for that behaviour/characteristic passed on. e.g. Bowlby proposed attachments were adaptive as they ensured infant protection-survival .
Outline the nurture argument
Refer to behaviourism, social learning theory and other explanations
- Nurture= behaviour is a product of environmental influences.
- Behaviourism= classical and operant conditioning can explain formation of attachments (CC=food is the mother who feeds the baby, OC=food reduces discomfort of hunger and is therefore rewarding).
- Social learning theory= also proposed behaviour acquired through learning, adding indirect (vicarious)reinforcement- Bandura also allowed that biology had a role to play e.g. urge to behave aggressively might be biological, but important point was the way person learns to express anger is required through environmental influences (direct and indirect reinforcement).
- Other= Bateson’s double blind theory-Sz develops in children who receive contradictory messages from parents e.g. mother tells son she loves him but at same time turns away in disgust- prevent child developing an internally consistent construction of reality-may lead to symptoms of Sz.
Discuss the interactionist approach of nature-nurture debate
-Nature and Nurture can be separated= like the length and width of a rectangle are both important in calculating its area (Hebb)- or phenylketonuria which is genetic but not expressed if given right diet.
-Diathesis-stress= a person’s nature only expressed under certain conditions of nurture (stressor)- diathesis=biological vulnerability-expression of these genes depends on experience (stressor)-condition only expressed under certain conditions of nurture.
-Nature affects nurture= Indirect genetic influences- Genetic factors create an infants microenvironment- e.g. a child who is genetically more aggressive might provoke an aggressive response in others-becomes part of child’s environment and affects development.
Nurture affects nature= Neural plasticity-life experiences shape biology- e.g. London taxi drivers- hippocampus (spatial memory) bigger than in controls- responded to increased use not genetic influence.
Epigenetics= ‘switches’ that turn genes on or off- life experiences such as nutrition or stress, control these switches- also passed on to subsequent generations.
Define determinism and refer to all 6 types
-Determinism= view that an individual’s behaviour is controlled by either internal or external forces-therefore behaviour should be predictable.
-Hard= all behaviour is determined, there is no free will.
Soft= biological factors and past experience present a range of choices; we feel more free in situations with little constraint.
-Biological= behaviour determined by genetics- research on intelligence identified particular genes (IGF2R) found in people with high intelligence (Hill et al, 1999). - Genes influence brain structure ad neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine often implicated in behaviour.
-Environmental= Behaviourists believe all behaviour is caused by previous experience, through process of classical and operant conditioning.
-Psychic= Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality- adult behaviour determined by a mix of innate drives and early experience, both internal and external forces.
-Scientific= all events have a cause- independent variable manipulated to observe causal effect on a dependent variable- e.g. Harlow’s attachment research- independent variable (wire mother with milk or cloth covered) and a dependent variable (attachment formed). -demonstrated that contact comfort, not food, determined formation of an attachment.
Define free will and refer to both the humanistic approach and moral responsibility
- Free will= Each individual has the power to make choices about their behaviour.
- Humanistic= Maslow and Rogers- self determination was a necessary part of human behaviour- without it healthy self-development and self-actualisation are not possible.
- Moral responsibility= an individual is charge of their own actions- law states that children and mentally ill do not have this responsibility, but otherwise there is this assumption, that ‘normal’ adult behaviour is self determined- humans are accountable for their actions, regardless of innate factors or the influence of early experience.
Evaluate determinism
-Genetic determinism= doubtful that 100% genetic determination will be found for e.g. MZ twins find about 80% similarity on intelligence or about 40% for depression. Therefore genes do not entirely determine behaviour.
-Environmental determinism= concordance rates above equally show that environment cannot be the sole determining factor in behaviour; at least some genetic input.
Scientific determinism= Dennet (2003)- in the physical sciences there is no such thing as total determinism- chaos theory: very small changes in initial conditions can result in major changes- sometimes called the ‘butterfly effect’- therefore causal relationships are probabilistic rather than deterministic-increase probability of something occurring rather than being the sole determinant- Deterministic explanations oversimplify human behaviour-cognitive factors such as thinking about what you intend to do, can override biological impulses– therefore the idea of finding a simple determinist formula from psychological research is unrealistic.
-Does it matter? A determinist position suggests criminals might excise their behaviour on genetic grounds or that mental disorder must be treated using drugs or conditioning.
Evaluate Free will
- Illusion of free will= Being able to decide between different courses of action is not free will- gives us illusion of having free will- put forward by Skinner- a person might ‘choose’ to buy a particular car or see a particular film, but in fact these choices are determined by previous reinforcement experiences.
- Culturally relative= Self determinism may be a culturally relative concept, appropriate for individualist societies only- collectivist cultures place greater value on behaviour determined by group needs.
- Research challenge to free will= Benjamin Libet et al. (1983)- recorded activity in motor areas of the brain before person had a conscious awareness of decision to move finger-decision to move finger= simply a ‘read out’ of a pre-determined action-findings confirmed by follow up research by Chun Siong Soon et al. (2008)- found activity in prefrontal cortex-up to 10 seconds before a person was aware of their decision to act-However other researchers found different results= Trevena and Miller (2009)-brain activity simply a ‘readiness to act’ rather than an intention to move- neuroscience supports free will for the moment.
Define reductionism and refer to the levels of explanation
Reductionism= breaks complex phenomena into more simple components.
Levels of explanation= explanations begin at highest level and progressively look at component elements
-Highest level= cultural and social explanations of how our social groups affect our behaviour.
-Middle level= psychological explanations of behaviour.
-Lower level= biological explanations of how hormones and genes etc. affect our behaviour.
Define biological reductionism
Human behaviour can be reduced to a physical level -reduce behaviour to the action of neurons, neurotransmitters hormones etc. e.g. It is suggested that Sz is caused by excessive activity of neurotransmitter dopamine because drugs that block this reduce symptoms of disorder.
Define environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism
Behaviour can be reduced to a simple stimulus-response link- e.g. behaviourist explanation offered for attachment- complex emotion of attachment is reduced to a set of probabilities: mother is likely to provide food which is reinforcing (reduces discomfort). She is rewarding individual and so becomes a ‘loved one’.
Define experimental reductionism
Behaviours are reduced to operationalised variables that can be manipulated and measured to determine causal relationships.
Define Holism
Focuses on systems as a whole rather than on the constituent parts, and suggests that we cannot predict how the whole system will behave just from a knowledge of the individual components.
Therefore reductionist explanations would only play a role in understanding.
Outline gestalt psychology with reference to holism
- The word ‘Gestalten’ means ‘the whole in German.
- Focused on perception arguing that explanations for what we see only make sense through consideration of the whole rather than the individual elements.
Outline humanistic psychology with reference to holism
-Individuals react as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimulus-response (S-R) links- what matter most is a person’s sense of a unified identity; a lack of identity or a sense of ‘wholeness’ leads to mental disorder.
