Approaches

Question 1

What is introspection?

Answer 1

the systematic recording of conscious thoughts being broken down into their constituent parts

Question 2

What is empiricism and who was it proposed by?

Answer 2

John locked proposed empiricism; the idea that all experiences can be obtained through senses and that humans do not inherit instincts or knowledge

Question 3

What are the main assumptions of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 3

All behaviour is learnt; nothing is inherited/innate
Behaviour is learnt through either classical or operant conditioning
Behaviour should be measured objectively and systematically

Question 4

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 4

The process of learning by association; a neutral stimulus is introduced and paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it can elicit the UCR without the presence of the UCS, thus becoming a conditioned response.

Question 5

What is operant conditioning?

Answer 5

The process of learning due to reinforcement/the consequences of our behaviour. This occurs through either positive reinforcement whereby the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated is strengthened by receiving a reward
or negative reinforcement which removes an unpleasant experience, thus strengthening the likelihood of behaviours being repeated or punishment

Question 6

Outline Skinner’s research

Answer 6

1) placed rats in a box and everytime they pressed the lever they were rewarded with food
2) placed rats in a box where they received electric shocks until the lever is pressed

Question 7

Evaluate the behaviourist approach

Answer 7

scientific credibility; lab studies
real life applications; token economies in schools and prisons, aversion therapy and systematic desensitisation and flooding
deterministic; no element of free will; societal impacts
experiments conducted on animals; generalisation issues
ignores biological factors and mediational processes
reductionist; simplifies complex behaviours down to the basic principles of conditioning
nomothetic; provides clear predictions which can lead to the development of effective treatment for particular conditions

Question 8

Outline the three different types of reinforcement?

Answer 8

1) Continuous reinforcement: being reinforced every time a behaviour is repeated
2) Varied Ratio reinforcement: behaviour is reinforced after a predictable number of repetition
3) Varied Interval reinforcement: reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time

Question 9

What is behaviour shaping?

Answer 9

when an existing behaviour or response is gradually changed into the desired target behaviour by reinforcement.

Question 10

What are the main assumptions of the social learning theory?

Answer 10

Behaviour is more than stimulus and response; mediational processes occur in between
Behaviour is learnt through observation, imitation and vicarious reinforcement
A person must have a degree of self-efficacy in order to imitate the modelled behaviours
Our role models who we observe and imitate are usually people we identify with
ARRM (attention, retention, reproduction & motivation)

Question 11

Outline Bandura’s research

Answer 11

aimed to investigate whether aggressive behaviours could be acquired through observational learning
children watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo doll (or saw no aggression in the control group) and then were allowed to play with the Bobo doll themselves.
They found that boys displayed more physically aggressive behaviour towards the doll than girls.

Question 12

Evaluate the social learning theory approach

Answer 12

Real life applications to aggression, gender development and psychopathology.
Takes mediational factors into account, hence more comprehensive explanation than other approaches, such as behaviourism.
Does not take into account biological factors, such as the influence that higher levels of testosterone in boys may have had on the results obtained by Bandura’s study, therefore incomplete.
Cannot account for all instances of behaviour, such as when there is no role model present.
More idiographic than behaviourist approach as it acknowledges the way that individual differences may affect behaviour.
Over-relies on lab studies which lack ecological validity; conclusions drawn from these types of research may have a questionable extent of generalisability to real life scenarios as a result.

Question 13

Outline the main assumptions of the cognitive approach

Answer 13

Internal mental processes should be studied scientifically
It is essential to make inferences on the way that internal mental processes are operating based on the displayed behaviours.
Theoretical models give us a sound understanding of mental internal processes.
There are similarities between how humans and computers process information (computer analogy).

Question 14

Outline and evaluate schemas

Answer 14

Schemas are a mental framework of beliefs and expectations, built through experience which influence our cognitive processing
Schemas help us to quickly process incoming information and stop us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
However, they can distort our views and interpretations of information, leading to perceptual errors.

Question 15

What is cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 15

the scientific study of the way in which neural structures influence internal mental processes.

Question 16

Evaluate the cognitive approach

Answer 16

Objective, scientific methods of study means high replicability.
Machine reductionism; ignores the influence of emotion on mental processes and behaviour (despite emotion being shown to affect EWTs) and instead provides a mechanistic view of behaviour.
Arguably too theoretical as only inferences can be made about the effect of internal mental processes on behaviour.
Excessive use of lab studies that lack ecological validity.
Less deterministic than other approaches, such as behaviourism.

Question 17

Outline the main assumptions of the biological approach

Answer 17

All behaviour is determined by physiological processes, such as genetics.
Psychology should be studied scientifically.
Most behaviour has an evolutionary response as genes have evolved over millions of years to adapt to changing environments.
Genetics should be investigated through twin studies and concordance rates.
Brain structures should be investigated through brain scans, EEGs to establish links

Question 18

Evaluate the biological approach

Answer 18

uses scientific methods of study which are highly replicable
excessive use of lab studies that lack ecological validity
applications to psychopathology
only takes into account nature and ignores nuture; difficult to distinguish between their effects therefore arguably an incomplete theory
does not consider the effect of cognitive processes on behaviour and other external factors; reductionist as it simplifies behaviour causes solely down to genetics and brain structure
nomothetic nature of approach provides clear predictions; if we know the cause of behaviours it is easier to develop effective treatments

Question 19

Outline the main assumption of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 19

unconscious thoughts and processes direct human behaviour (psychic determinism).
the unconscious also contains traumatic memories that have been repressed

Question 20

Outline the psychodynamic structure of personality

Answer 20

describes personality is tripartite:

1) id: selfish component in the unconscious that works on the pleasure principle and demands instant gratification; id is present from birth
2) ego: the mediator between the other two parts which reduces conflicts between the demands of the id and superego by employing defence mechanisms. works on the reality principle at develops at around 2 years old.
3) superego: our internalised sense of right and wrong (based on that of the child’s same-sex parent) which develops around the end of the phallic stage (5 years) and punishes the ego for wrongdoing with guilt. Works on the morality principle.

Question 21

Outline the psychosexual stages

Answer 21

argues that each psychosexual stage is marked by a conflict the child must resolve in order to move onto the next stage; unresolved conflict leads to fixation, causing the child to carry out behaviours associated with that stage during later life.

1) oral(0-1): pleasure focus is mouth; leads to smoking, biting nails, sarcasm and criticism
2) anal(1-3): pleasure focus is anus; leads to obsessive/perfectionist (retentive) or thoughtless/messy (expulsive)
3) phallic(3-5): pleasure focus is genitals (Oedipus and Electra); leads to narcissism and possibly homosexuality
4) latency; repression of earlier conflicts
5) genital; conscious sexual desires; leads to difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

Question 22

Outline defence mechanisms

Answer 22

repression is forcing a traumatic memory out of the conscious mind
denial is the refusal to acknowledge or accept the reality of a situation
displacement is the process of transferring feelings from the true source of your emotions onto a substitute target

Question 23

Evaluate the psychodynamic approach

Answer 23

cannot test the unconscious mind directly, therefore a lack of research support/evidence; questionable validity and reliability of theory as it cannot be falsified.
over-relies on case studies; generalisability issues due to the small and unique sample used, such as Little Hans.
Deterministic (psychic determinism) and explains any free will we believe to have as an illusion.

Question 24

Outline the main assumption of the humanistic approach

Answer 24

emphasises the importance of an individual’s subjective experience and their capacity to determine their development (free will and idography).
Reject general laws from nomothetic approaches as a result.

Question 25

Outline self-actualisation and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 25

self-actualisation is the uppermost level of Maslow’s hierarchy which is the process of reaching ones full potential; it is argued that there are a range of psychological barriers that must be overcome in order for a person to be able to achieve self actualisation, as detailed in the hierarchy

Question 26

Outline congruence and conditions of worth

Answer 26

Congruence is when a person’s ideal and perceived self are broadly equivalent (match)
Conditions of worth occur when a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children, for instance saying ‘I will only love you if…’. unconditional positive regards is necessary to overcome this; the main aim of Rogerian therapy.

Question 27

Evaluate the humanistic approach

Answer 27

takes a holistic stance on explaining human behaviour; as it considers a wide range of factors rather than breaking down the cause of a behaviour into a simplistic part, it is arguably more comprehensive than other explanations
limited application to real world
untestable concepts such as self-actualisation and congruence; may be useful therapeutic tools but difficult to test in a controlled, objective way
cultural bias; focuses on self growth, autonomy and other ideals from individualistic cultures in the Western world that are not as highly valued in collectivist cultures. As a result this theory may be culturally relative, thus lacking validity in explaining behaviours from those of collectivist cultures.