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Psych 335 > Final exam > Flashcards

Final exam Flashcards

1
Q

What is the self according to James

A

self as two major components

  • existential self
  • categorical self
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2
Q

Existential self

A

the subjective “I” who experiences the world

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3
Q

Categorical self

A

the objective “me” seen and evaluated in the world

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4
Q

Self according to Harter

A

the self as a broad concept that can be divided into 3 distinct but interrelated elements

  • Self-knowledge (self-awareness)
  • Self-evaluation (self-esteem)
  • Self-regulation (self-control)
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5
Q

Self schema

A

an internal cognitive portrait of the self used to organize information about the self

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6
Q

Selman’s 5 stages of self-awareness

Cognitive-developmental approach

A 
Level 0 (infancy)
Level 1 (Early childhood)
Level 2 (middle childhood)
Level 3 (preadolescence)
Level 4 (adolescence)
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7
Q

Selman’s level 0

A

Infancy
children understand their physical existence but
don’t display an awareness of separate psychological existence

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8
Q

Selman’s level 1

A

Early childhood

Child separates psychological states from behaviour; thoughts can control actions

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9
Q

Selman’s level 2

A

Middle childhood

The self can be hidden from others but cannot be hidden from oneself

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10
Q

Selman’s level 3

A

Preadolescence

Self represents a stable component of personality

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11
Q

Selman’s level 4

A

Adolescence

Self cannot ever be completely known

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12
Q

Bandura’s theory of self

A

Self evolves from self-efficacy and self-regulation

Environmental/learning approach

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13
Q

Self-efficacy

A

A person’s perception of his or her ability to succeed at various tasks

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14
Q

Evaluative self reactions

A

Consequences people apply to themselves as a result of meeting (or not) personal standards
- motivates children to behave in accordance with their internal standards

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15
Q

Bowlby’s attachment theory

A

Responsive care-giving can influence self-development

evolutionary and biological approach

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16
Q

When did self-consciousness emerge?

A

Some hominids (I.e. orang-utans & chimpanzees) and possibly dolphins exhibit some self-recognition

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17
Q

How does self-awareness contribute to adaptation?

A

Self-awareness is thought to have evolved as part of living in complex social groups - allows us to understand the mental state of others

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18
Q

What is the neurobiological source of self-awareness?

A

Some aspects of self-awareness may be encapsulated in modules in the brain (prefrontal areas)

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19
Q

Sociocultural approach to the self

A
  • The self develops through participation in cultural practices, customs and institutions.
  • the delineation between self and other has a more diffused boundary in non-Western cultures
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20
Q

Culture + self

A

cultures vary in

1) the age @ which an individual is defined as a “person”
2) possible incarnations of the “self” in time and space
3) in notions of the “ideal” self

Cultural perceptions of self begin early

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21
Q

Self-knowledge: perception

A

Infants can imitate adult facial expressions

- 3 m.o. infants perceive their own Motor control

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22
Q

Personal agency

A

child understands that he/she can have an impact on the world

  • early indicator of this awareness is infant actions on things (toys) in their environment
  • the more sensitive and responsive the parents, the more quickly infants come to understand their own influence on the environment
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23
Q

Visual self recognition

A

3 months: can discriminate still images of self vs. others
- prefer to view image of other
5 months: when still images are altered so cheeks have a mark on them, looking preference changes
- more time spent looking @self

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24
Q

Mirror self-recognition/The Mark test (Gallup, 1970)

A

children who pass this test understand that a spot on the forehead relates to them (shown by reaching response)
** recognition of the self in photographs occurs several months after mirror self-recognition

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25
Q

Variability of visual self-recognition

A
  • correlation between difficult temperament and earlier self-recognition
  • secure attachment is correlated with self-recognition, sense of personal agency, and awareness of personal physical characteristics
  • maltreated or abused children are less securely attached and display later self-recognition
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26
Q

Self-description

Piagetian - preoperational

A

Early childhood
Focus on physical characteristics, possessions, preferences
“I have freckles”
“My cat is white”

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27
Q

Self-description

Piagetian - concrete operations

A

Middle and later childhood
Focus on behavioural traits and abilities, emotions, category membership
“I’m a good singer”
“I’m a happy kid”

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28
Q

Self-description

Piagetian - Formal operations

A

Adolescence
Focus on attitudes, personality attributes (sometimes opposing or associated with different roles), beliefs
“I’m patriotic”
“I’m not a quitter”

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29
Q

Cultural continuity

A

A variety of variables related to autonomy and opportunities to maintain First Nations culture
a protective factor against suicide
Basically culture as a developmental aid and identity factor

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30
Q

Self-esteem

A

a person’s assessment of and feelings about the self

  • cognitive judgment of ability and talent
  • affective reactions (shame, pride)
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31
Q

Looking-glass self

A

individual’s beliefs about how others feel about us

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32
Q

Competence view

A

self-esteem as a combination of what we would like to achieve and our confidence in achievement

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33
Q

Self-evaluation

A

evaluations and effects of self-esteem are most often measured through questionnaires
Harter uses a questionnaire to assess self-evaluations in each of 5 domains: scholastic, athletic and social competence, behavioural conduct and physical appearance

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34
Q

Developmental progression of self-esteem

A

Self-esteem scores are relatively stable during childhood - relatively high in preschoolers and young children
@ age 11/12 scores can dip due to:
- development of excessive self-consciousness
- biological changes during puberty
- moving schools

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35
Q

Gender differences in self-esteem

A

Self esteem across domains:

  • greater variability in girls
  • girls feel more positively in the conduct domain, but more negatively in the domains of physical appearance and athletic performance

Development course of self-esteem
- beginning in middle to late childhood, boys report higher global self-worth than girls

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36
Q

Academic self-concept

A

the part of self-esteem involving children’s perceptions of their academic abilities

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37
Q

Mastery-oriented pattern

Achievement motivation and attribution (Carol Dweck)

A

children who, in the face of failure, express positive expectations and persist at the task

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38
Q

Helpless pattern

Achievement motivation and attribution (Carol Dweck)

A

those who response to failure with doubt and avoidance

patterns of persistence or helplessness evident in 4 year olds

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39
Q

Entity model of intelligence

Achievement motivation and attribution (Carol Dweck)

A

intelligence is seen as fixed or unchangeable quantity

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40
Q

Incremental model

Achievement motivation and attribution (Carol Dweck)

A

intelligence is believed to be expanded with learning and experience

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41
Q

Criticism & academic self-concept

Achievement motivation and attribution (Carol Dweck)

A

Factors:

  • how caregivers respond to successes or failures influences the development of attribution patterns
  • criticism that focuses on stable traits has a negative effect
  • criticism that focuses on situation-specific efforts results in mastery orientation, as does praise for efforts
42
Q

Social comparisons

A

a comparison of one’s abilities to those of others

  • by 2nd grade, a child’s level of self-eval is + correlated with frequency of social comparison
  • high achievers compare more
  • bidirectional effect
43
Q

Parental style effects on academic self-concept

A
  • parental attitudes, expectations and behaviours strongly predict children’s self-perceptions
  • through participation in school activities and helping children w/ learning activities
  • by providing structure and assistance tailored to child’s academic ability
  • proving autonomy support

**warm supportive fathers facilitate the development of high academic self-concept

44
Q

Emergence of self-control

A

children learn how to control their own behaviours

  • to avoid dangerous objects (hot stove)
  • to wait for gratification (cookie after dinner)
  • to change non-effective strategies (bargaining rather than screaming for a toy)

*A common aspect of all theories of self-regulation is that at first, children are externally controlled and that control becomes internalized over time

45
Q

Compliance

A

Going along with requests or adopting standards of behaviour

46
Q

Committed compliance

A

when a child embraces the caregiver’s agenda and internalizes their instruction

47
Q

Situational compliance

A

when the child cooperates but does not involve any behavioural change in the child
- often temporary

48
Q

Resistance to temptation

A
  • forbidden toy technique
  • examines how long children will resist a common to avoid a forbidden toy
  • older children are more able to wait
  • observing an adult inhibit behaviour in a similar situation, making self-inhibitory statements, or developing inhibitory strategies can help children resist temptation
49
Q

Delay gratification

A

Child is given 2 choices:

  • small reward that is available now
  • larger reward available later
  • both younger and older children are more likely to delay when producing irrelevant statements
  • reducing attention paid to tempting object facilitates delay
  • delay scores predict SAT scores and BMI 30 years later
50
Q

Theory of mind

A

the individual imputes mental states to himself and to others (either to conspecifics or to other species as well). A system of inferences of this kind is properly viewed as a theory, first because such states are not directly observable, and second because the system can be used to make predictions, specifically about the behaviour of other organisms.
Premack & Woodruff

51
Q

Associationism

A
  • familiarity with sequence –> sequence completion

- follow-up experiment with novel sequences (e.g. trying to play a phonograph that is not plugged in)

52
Q

Theory of Mind (ToM)

A

imputes states of mind to the human actor (intention/purpose, knowledge/belief)

53
Q

False belief understanding

A

An indicator that the child differentiates between mind and world, and that someone can have a belief that differs from reality

54
Q

Development of ToM

Progression

A

Progression from reasoning about desires to reasoning about beliefs and hidden emotions

Important cultural differences

Diverse desire>Diverse belief>Knowledge access>False Belief>Hidden Emotion

55
Q

Nativist Interpretation of infant FB data

A
  • 15 month olds already possess (at least in rudimentary and implicit form a representational theory of mind
  • children are born with an “abstract computation system”
  • innate, modular “theory of mind mechanism
56
Q

Minimalist interpretation of infant false belief data

A
  • infants are following behaviour rules (e.g. “a person will look for an object where she put it”
  • statistical learning (innate)
57
Q

Precursors of ToM

A
  • joint attention and gaze following
  • intention-reading
  • imitation
  • pretend play
  • use of internal state language e.g. “I think” “I feel”
  • perspective-taking
58
Q

Empathy

A

ability to vicariously experience another’s emotional state - can be observed in infants (cry when hearing another infant cry)

59
Q

Sympathy

A

feelings of concern for another - is related to children’s ability to understand other’s mental states

60
Q

Prosocial behaviours

A

socially desirable behaviours, include helping, sharing, and conflict resolution
**moral emotions (ex. empathy & sympathy) are the roots of prosocial behaviours

61
Q

Hoffman’s Six Stages

Stage 1

A

Global empathic distress

First precursor to empathy - infants cry reactively upon hearing the cries of other infants

62
Q

Hoffman’s Six Stages

Stage 2

A

Egocentric empathic distress
(11-12 months)

Second precursor to empathy - respond to distress by comforting themselves

63
Q

Hoffman’s Six Stages

Stage 3

A

Quasi-egocentric empathic distress
(18-24 months)

Beginning of sympathy; offer help but in the way they would want to be helped/comforted

64
Q

Hoffman’s Six Stages

Stage 4

A

Veridical empathy
(~3 y.o.)

Understand that other people have inner states that can be different than their own; offer more appropriate help and comfort

65
Q

Hoffman’s Six Stages

Stage 5

A

Empathic distress beyond the situation (middle childhood)

Mature empathy; can empathize with individuals imagined to have generally unpleasant/difficult lives

66
Q

Hoffman’s Six Stages

Stage 6

A

Empathy for distressed groups (adolescence)

High level of empathy; can empathize with the plight of groups of people

67
Q

Helping

A
  • toddlers comfort those in distress
  • infants (18 months) help others to achieve goals
  • increases with age

incomplete action, identify obstacle, how to overcome

  • emerges around 14 months in simple situations (out of reach)
  • *more complex helping depends on cognitive and social development
  • even very young children have a natural tendency to help other persons solve their problems, even when the other is a stranger and receive no benefit
68
Q

Sharing

A

Emerges by the end of the first year

- more likely to share with friends and those who have given them help in the past

69
Q

Conflict resolution

A

Goes from coercion to negotiation

- resolve conflict both verbally and nonverbally

70
Q

Determinants of prosocial behaviour

BIOLOGY

A

Genes influence prosocial development through temperament

71
Q

Determinants of prosocial behaviour

AFFECT

A

empathetic distress

72
Q

Determinants of prosocial behaviour

COGNITION

A

prosocial reasoning, and children’s mental state understanding

73
Q

Determinants of prosocial behaviour

SOCIALIZATION

A

Parents contribute to children’s prosocial development by:

  • providing opportunities to practice prosocial behaviours
  • communicating prosocial values using inductive techniques
  • modelling and reinforcing prosocial behaviours
74
Q

Morality

A

involves issues of right and wrong, good and evil

3 facets: AFFECT, COGNITION & BEHAVIOUR

75
Q

Moral rules

A

broad issues of fairness and justice

76
Q

Social conventional rules

A

rules used by society to maintain order

77
Q

Moral reasoning studies

A

assess the thought processes that underlie morality

78
Q

Moral conduct studies

A

Assess behaviours governed by morality

79
Q

Social-cognitive developmental approaches

A

mose concerned with children’s moral reasoning

advances in moral understanding depend on children’s cognitive abilities (e.g. perspective taking)

80
Q

Piaget’s theory on morality

A

uses moral dilemmas to assess children’s thoughts on morality
- moral reasoning develops as the cognitive structures of the child develop

81
Q

Stage 1 (Piaget’s theory)

A

2-4 years

children have no true conception of morality

82
Q

Stage 2 (Piaget’s theory)

A

5-7 years
- children understand and use rules, but are not flexible in rule use (stage of moral realism)
- Objective responsibility: children evaluate moral situations on the basis of the amount of damage
Immanent justice: inherent justice

83
Q

Stage 3 (Piaget’s theory)

A

8-11 years

  • children realize that rules are conventions and can be altered
  • children in this stage now consider intention in their evaluations of morality (stage of moral relativism)
84
Q

Objective responsibility

A

children evaluate moral situations on the basis of the amount of damage

85
Q

Stage 4 (Piaget’s theory)

A

children develop rules as needed and extend moral reasoning beyond their personal level

86
Q

Piaget’s findings on moral reasoning

A
  • older children become increasingly attuned to motives and intentions
  • cognitive capacities underlie moral judgment
  • peer relations are important for moral development
  • *may have underestimated children’s reasoning abilities
87
Q

Kohlberg’s model

A

Presented children with moral dilemmas and asked them to explain their reasoning

Growth across levels and stages depends on:

  • improving cognitive skills
  • repeated encounters with moral issues
88
Q

Kohlberg’s model

Preconventional

A

moral reasoning based on the assumption that individuals must serve their own needs

89
Q

Kohlberg’s model

Conventional

A

moral reasoning based on the view that a social system must be based on laws and regulations

90
Q

Kohlberg’s model

Postconventional

A

moral reasoning based on the assumption that the value, dignity, and rights of each individual person must be maintained

91
Q

Similarities between Piaget and Kohlberg

A
  • cognitive-developmental perspectives
  • important of interactions with the social world (especially peers)
  • moral development occurs in a step-wise fashion
  • younger children focus on rules
  • older children focus on intention
92
Q

Differences between Piaget and Kohlberg

A
  • Kohlberg focused more on discrete stages

- Kohlberg argued that conduct follows reasoning; Piaget emphasized that reasoning often follows action

93
Q

Turtle and Smetana’s Social Domain Theory

A

Children’s moral reasoning involves several different domains:
- personal
- social-conventional
- moral
Children’s understanding of moral and societal issues is influenced by context

94
Q

Social Domain Theory

Moral Domain

A
  • have “intrinsic effects” on other’s welfare

- obligatory, universally applicable

95
Q

Social Domain Theory

Social-conventional

A
  • violate norms and expectations
  • inappropriate, but not malicious or victim-based
  • contingent on authority commands; can be altered
96
Q 
Social Domain Theory
Personal domain (individual choice)
A
  • knowledge of self, personality, and identity
97
Q

Evaluating Turiel’s model

A
  • support for different domains of moral reasoning
  • support for the influence of context in which reasoning takes place
  • researchers using culturally appropriate versions of Turiel’s stories have replicated his findings across a diverse array of societies
    • there is also cultural variability in how children classify different kinds of rule violations
98
Q

Altruism

A

behaviours that benefit another but may cost the person

99
Q

Kin selection

A

a person will act to aid persons who share their genes (e.g., other is more likely to act to save her child than her husband; child has more of her genes)

100
Q

Reciprocal altruism

A

members of a group reciprocate in their altruism so that all members are more likely to survive and pass on their genes

101
Q

Environmental/learning approaches

A
  • reinforcement and observational processes are involved in moral development
  • as children develop, they internalize what they have learned to regulate their own behaviour
  • -> via evaluative self-reactions & self-sanctions
102
Q

Sociocultural approaches

A

moral development is a process of socialization
- through interactions with family and cultural institutions, children are assisted by other people in structuring and interpreting situations for themselves

Psych 335 (2 decks)

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