Psychology-issues and debates Flashcards
(132 cards)
1
Q
What is gender bias?
A
The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences
2
Q
What did Hare-Mustin and Marecek propose?
A
There are two different ways that theories may be biased. Alpha bias and beta bias. The aim is to produce theories that can claim to have universality
3
Q
What is alpha bias?
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A tendency to assume there are real differences, and exaggerate differences between men and women. The consequence is that that theories devalue one gender in comparison to another
4
Q
What is beta bias?
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A tendency to ignore or minimise differences between men and women. Such theories tend either to ignore questions about the lives of women, or assume that insights derived from studies of men will apply equally well to women
5
Q
What is universality?
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The aim to develop theories that apply to all people, which may include real differences
6
Q
What is androcentrism?
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Centred or focused on men, often to the neglect or exclusion of women. For most its life psychology (and society in general) has been very much male-dominated. Almost all psychologists were and are men, and therefore the theories they produce tend to represent a male world-view. This is androcentrism and may result in an alpha or beta bias
7
Q
What is an example of alpha bias in research?
A
Freud’s research. Freud’s theories reflected the culture in which he lived. In 19th century, men were more powerful and more educated, and regarded as superior to women. In his alpha-biased theory of psychoanalysis Freud viewed femininity as failed masculinity-he exaggerated the difference between men and women. As Josselson points out, in Freud’s theory, women must be morally inferior due to a weaker identification with their mothers, because the superego cannot develop
8
Q
What is an example of beta bias in research?
A
Stress research (fight-or-flight response). Biological research usually conducted with male animals because in females the variations in hormone levels would make research more difficult. It is assumed that such male-only samples would not matter because what is true for males is true for females. In stress research it was assumed fight-or-flight response was universal, until Taylor et al challenged this, providing evidence of females producing a tend-and-befriend response which was adaptive for them. The beta bias meant a real difference was ignored
9
Q
How can the issues of gender bias be solved?
A
It would be wrong to try to eradicate gender differences as a way to resolve the gender bias issue. That approach is in itself a beta bias. The solution lies in recognising the differences but not superiority of one gender over another (universality), eg moral reasoning research
10
Q
What was Kohlberg’s theory?
A
He produced a very influential theory of moral development, suggesting moral decisions we make are based on an ethic of justice. He based his theory on research with boys and men where he asked them to describe what behaviour would be right in certain situations that were related to fairness. This is an example of beta bias as he assumed the male responses would apply to all people
11
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What did Gilligan point out about Kohlberg’s research?
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The dilemmas used were also biased-they had a male orientation as they were concerned with justice rather than being concerned with, eg, hurting someone else’s feelings (morals)
12
Q
What happened when Kohlberg tested women?
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He found they were less morally developed than men-a classic outcome of alpha boas. His original beta bias meant that he now exaggerated the differences between men and women
13
Q
What did Gilligan’s own theory show?
A
Her own theory and research showed that women favoured a care orientation, whereas men favoured a justice orientation. Gilligan’s approach showed that men and women are different, but it was not biased because neither kind of moral reasoning was considered as ‘better’-they are just different. (Universality)
14
Q
What are the evaluation points for gender in psychology: gender bias?
A
Feminist psychology, bias in research methods, reverse alpha bias, avoiding a beta bias, and assumptions need to be examined
15
Q
How is ‘feminist psychology’ an evaluation point for gender bias in psychology?
A
Feminist perspective counters androcentrism. Argues ‘difference’ psychology arises from biological explanations of behaviour. The alternative, social constructionist approach, aims to understand behaviour in terms of social processes and so find a way to greater equality. Feminist psychology agrees there are real biologically based differences but socially determined stereotypes make a gar greater contribution to perceived differences. For any social change we must revise out ‘facts’ about gender. One way to redress balance is to use evidence that women may be inferior to provide greater support eg Eagly acknowledged women may be less effective leaders but this should be used to develop suitable training programmes to create a future with more women as leaders
16
Q
How is ‘bias in research methods’ an evaluation point for gender bias in psychology?
A
If psychological theories/studies are gender biased, a consequence is research may find differences between genders. May not be that the genders differ, but the methods used to test/observe them are biased, so males and females appear to be different. Another issue is gender of researcher. Rosenthal found male experimenters more pleasant, friendly and encouraging to female participants than males. Result was male participants appeared to perform less well on tasks assigned. Feminists argue lab experiments disadvantage women as the findings created in controlled world tell us little about experience of women outside these settings
17
Q
How is ‘avoiding a beta bias’ an evaluation point for gender bias in psychology?
A
Beta bias has consequences for women. Equal treatment (a beta bias) under the law has allowed women greater access to educational and occupational opportunities. However, Hare-Mustin and Marecek point that arguing for equality between men and women draws attention away from women’s special needs and differences in power between men and women. In society where one group holds most power, seemingly neural actions end up benefiting the group with power. Eg equal parental leave ignores biological demands of pregnancy, childbirth, breastfeeding and special needs of women so disadvantages women
18
Q
How is ‘assumptions need to be examined’ an evaluation point for gender bias in psychology?
A
Examples of gender bias continue unchallenged in many theories. Eg Darwin’s theory of sexual selection portrays women as choosy and males as ones who compete to be chosen. Pays, in terms of ultimate reproductive success, for females to be selective as costs are high. Explained in terms of female ‘coyness’ as means of masking interest in males when making choices whereas men are more explicit due to competition. This view has recently been challenged as being rooted in Victorian ideas that women are coy and men are aggressive. It has been recognised now women are equally competitive and aggressive when the need arises
19
Q
What is cultural bias?
A
The tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions. This distorts or biases judgement
20
Q
What do Hare-Mustin and Marecek suggest about cultural bias?
A
Suggested that before being able to decide if there are cultural differences one must consider the extent to which any research (theory or study) is biased. Only then can the ‘truth’ be disentangled from the way psychological research has found it
21
Q
What is alpha bias in cultural bias?
A
Refers to theories that assume real and enduring differences between cultural groups. Eg distinction that is often made between individualist and collectivist cultures. Eg we would expect members of individualistic cultures to be less conformist as they are less oriented towards group norms. To assess validity of this view, Takano and Osaka reviewed 15 studies that compared US and Japan in terms of individualism/collectivism. 14 out of 15 studies did not support the common view about differences in conformity. Findings suggest the individualism/collectivism dimension may not be a real distinction, suggesting it is no longer useful
22
Q
What is alpha bias in cultural bias?
A
Refers to theories that assume real and enduring differences between cultural groups. Eg distinction that is often made between individualist and collectivist cultures. Eg we would expect members of individualistic cultures to be less conformist as they are less oriented towards group norms. To assess validity of this view, Takano and Osaka reviewed 15 studies that compared US and Japan in terms of individualism/collectivism. 14 out of 15 studies did not support the common view about differences in conformity. Findings suggest the individualism/collectivism dimension may not be a real distinction, suggesting it is no longer useful
23
Q
What is beta bias in cultural bias?
A
Refers to theories that ignore or minimise cultural differences by assuming all people are the same so it is reasonable to use the same theories/methods with all cultural groups. Eg intelligence testing-psychologists use IQ tests devised by Western psychologists to study intelligence in many different cultures. Psychologists assume their view of intelligence applies to all cultures equally. Eg Western societies see intelligence as something within the individual but a collectivist culture such as Ugandan society sees it as a functional relationship depending on shared knowledge between individual and society. Means IQ tests (imposed etic) make non-Western people appear less intelligent
24
Q
What is ethnocentrism?
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Refers to the use of our own ethnic or cultural group as a basis for judgements about other groups. There is a tendency to view the beliefs, customs and behaviours of our own group as ‘normal’ and even superior, whereas those of other groups are ‘strange’ or deviant
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How does ethnocentrism relate to alpha bias?
Ethnocentrism is an example of alpha bias because one's own culture is considered to be different and better, and the consequence of this is that other cultures and their practices are devalues. An example of this is individuals attitudes towards attachment where independence is valued and dependence is seen as undesirable. In collectivist cultures, dependence tends to be more highly valued
26
How does ethnocentrism relate to beta bias?
Ethnocentrism can also lead to a beta bias, if psychologists believe their world view is the only view. Eg the case of IQ testing results from ethnocentrism where it was believed it was appropriate to use American IQ tests all over the world because there was an assumption that the American standard was universal
27
What is the opposite to ethnocentrism?
In a way, cultural relativism is the opposite of ethnocentrism. It is the idea that all cultures are worthy of respect and that in studying another culture we need to try to understand the way that a particular culture sees the world
28
How does cultural relativism relate to alpha bias?
Cultural relativism can also lead to alpha bias where the assumption of real differences leads psychologists to overlook universals. Eg Mead's research in Papua New Guinea where she initially concluded there were significant gender differences due to culture but later recognised that there were universals (probably related to biology)-that the men in all cultures were more aggressive than the women
29
How does cultural relativism relate to beta bias?
Cultural relativism is often discussed in context of defining mental disorders. In case of statistical infrequency definition of abnormality, behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be statistically more frequent in another. Eg, one symptom of schizophrenia is claiming to hear voices, however, this is an experience that is common in some cultures. By assuming that the same rules apply universally (a beta bias), we may diagnose some people as mentally ill, but that diagnosis is relative to our culture
30
What are the evaluation points for culture in psychology: cultural bias?
Indigenous psychologies, the emic-etic distinction, bias in research methods, consequences of cultural bias, and the worldview psychology community
31
How is 'indigenous psychologies' an evaluation point for cultural bias in psychology?
One way to counter ethnocentrism is to encourage indigenous psychologies-the development of different groups of theories in different counties. Eg Afrocentrism is a movement whose central proposition is all black people have roots in Africa and psychological theories concerning such people must, therefore, be African-centred and must express African values. Afrocentrism disputes view that European values are universally appropriate descriptions of human behaviour that apply equally to Europeans and non-Europeans alike. It suggests values and cultures of Europeans at worst devalue non-European people and at best are irrelevant to life and culture of people of African descent
32
How is 'the emic-etic distinction' an evaluation point for cultural bias in psychology?
Afrocentrism is an 'emic' approach-one which emphasises uniqueness of every culture by focusing on culturally specific phenomena. Problem with such approaches is findings tend to be significant only to understanding of behaviour within that culture. An 'etic' approach seeks universals of behaviour. One way to achieve this, while also avoiding cultural bias, is to use indigenous researchers in each cultural setting eg in Buss' classic study of mate preferences. Data collected from people in 37 cultures to look at universal behaviour. In each setting there three local researchers (one translated questionnaire from English to native language, a second translated answers back to English, a third resolved any discrepancies)
33
How is 'bias in research methods' an evaluation point for cultural bias in psychology?
Cultural bias in psychology can be dealt with by using studies with samples from different cultural groups. This was not the situation at the end of the last century, eg Smith and Bond surveyed research in one European textbook on social psychology in 1998 and found 66% studies American, 32% European and 2% from rest of the world. Sears also reported 82% research studies used undergraduates as participants in psychology studies and 51% were psychology students. A more recent study found 67% were American psychology students. This suggests a considerable amount of psychology is based on middle-class, academic, young adults, who incidentally are often male. Psychology findings are not only unrepresentative on a global scale, but also within Western culture
34
How is 'consequences of cultural bias' an evaluation point for cultural bias in psychology?
One of the most infamous examples of damage done by psychologists through cultural bias was US Army IQ test used just before WW1. Tests showed that European immigrants fell slightly below white Americans in terms of IQ, and African-Americans were at the bottom of the scale with lowest mental age. Data from these tests had profound effect on attitudes held by Americans towards certain groups of people-black people and people from south-eastern Europe. Data led to enduring stereotypes concerning certain ethnic groups and their IQ (Gould)
35
How is 'the worldview psychology community' an evaluation point for cultural bias in psychology?
Researchers in psychology, like most people, travel much more than 50 years ago, meaning they have increased understanding of other cultures at a personal and professional level. Academics hold international conferences where researchers from many countries and cultures regularly meet to discuss/exchange ideas. This is how Buss found his researchers in 37 cultures. This means there is much greater exchange of ideas, which should reduce ethnocentrism in psychology, enable an understanding of cultural relativism and mean that real differences are identified and valued
36
What is determinism?
Behaviour is controlled by external or internal factors acting upon an individual
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What are the types of determinism?
Biological determinism, environmental determinism, psychic determinism, and scientific determinism
38
What is biological determinism?
Research into human genome is producing increasing evidence of genetic influences on behaviour. More we discover, more it appears that our behaviour (not just physical characteristics) are determined by our genes. Eg research on intelligence has identified particular genes found in people with high intelligence, such as the IGF2R gene (Hill et al). Genes in turn, influence brain structure and neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine that are often implicated in behaviour, eg the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
39
What is environmental determinism?
Behaviourists believe all behaviour is caused by previous experience, through the processes of classical and operant conditioning (which may be direct or indirect) eg how phobias may develop as a consequence of conditioning-a new stimulus response relationship can be learned. Such a phobic response is also unlearned through conditioning (eg systematic desensitisation). The principles of learning theory have been applied to may areas of behaviour, such as aggression and eating behaviour
40
What is psychic determinism?
Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality suggests adult behaviour is determined by a mix of innate drives and early experience, i.e. both internal and external forces. Behaviour is driven by libido which focuses sequentially on erogenous zones. If a child is frustrated or overindulged (external forces) at any stage during development, then libido remains tied to relevant erogenous zone and individual is then fixated on that zone. The method of obtaining satisfaction that characterised the stage will dominate their adult personality
41
What is scientific determinism?
Scientific research is based on belief that all events have a cause. An IV is manipulated to observe the causal effect on a DV. Eg Harlow's research on attachment involving IV (wire mother with milk or cloth covered) and a DV (attachment formed). The result demonstrated contact comfort, not food, determined the formation of an attachment
42
What is free will?
Each individual has the power to make choices about their behaviour
43
How does the humanistic approach link to free will?
Humanistic psychologists such as Maslow and Rogers argues self-determination was necessary part of human behaviour. Without it, healthy self-development and self-actualisation are not possible. Rogers claimed as long as an individual remains controlled by other people or things, they cannot take responsibility for their behaviour therefore cannot begin to change it. Things outside a person's sense of self remain beyond personal control. Eg a person who says 'I lied but that isn't like me' does not admit they are a liar and therefore will not seek to change the behaviour. Only when an individual takes self-responsibility (self-determination) is personal growth possible, resulting in psychological health
44
How does moral responsibility link to free will?
Basis of moral responsibility is that an individual is in charge of own actions, i.e. can exercise free will. The law states children and those who are mentally ill do not have this responsibility, but otherwise there is the assumption, in our society, that 'normal' adult behaviour is self-determined. In other words, that humans are accountable for their actions, regardless of innate factors or the influence of early experience
45
What is one solution to the debate of free will and determinism?
To claim free will and determinism are not compatible. A position called soft determinism (opposite to hard determinism). Eg it can be argued that everything is determined by your biology and past experiences, but this leaves a persons with some choices that can be made. This was the view of Heather
46
What did Heather propose?
Behaviour may be predictable but this doesn't make it inevitable. Individuals are free to choose their behaviour, but this is usually from within a fairly limited repertoire
47
What did James suggest?
That we should separate behaviour into a physical and mental realm. The former is determine, whereas the latter is subject to free will
48
What did Valentine claim?
That behaviour is always determined-it just sometimes appears to be less determined: behaviour that is highly constrained by a situation appears involuntary, whereas behaviour that is less constrained by a situation appears voluntary. This was supported by Westcott's study
49
What are the evaluation points for determinism?
Genetic determinism, environmental determinism, scientific determinism, and does it matter?
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How is 'genetic determinism' an evaluation point for determinism?
Doubtful that 100% genetic determination will ever be found for any behaviour, eg studies that compare identical twins find about 80% similarity on intelligence or about 40% for depression. Therefore genes do not entirely determine behaviour
51
How is 'environmental determinism' an evaluation point for determinism?
The concordance rates referred to with genetic determinism equally show that environment cannot be the sole determining factor in behaviour; there is at least some genetic input. Therefore environmental explanations cannot solely determine behaviour
52
How is 'scientific determinism' an evaluation point for determinism?
Dennett argues in the physical sciences it is not accepted there is no such thin as total determinist. Chaos theory proposes very small change sin initial conditions can subsequently result in major changes ('butterfly effect'). Conclusion is causal relationships are probabilistic rather than determinist. Determinist explanations tend to oversimplify human behaviour. They may be suitable for non-human animals but human behaviour is less rigid and influenced by many factors eg cognitive factors. This means the idea of ever finding a simple determinist formula from psychological research is unrealistic
53
How is 'does it matter?' an evaluation point for determinism?
Attempts in criminal cases in US, for murderers to claim their behaviour was determined by inherited aggressive tendencies and therefore should not be punished with death penalty. Stephen Mobley claimed he murdered a pizza shop manager because he was 'born to kill' as evidenced by family history of violence. The argument was rejected and he was sentenced to death. Therefore in practice, a determinist position may be undesirable as it allows an 'excuse' to behaviour. Determinism is also an issue in treatment of mental disorders. Eg if view is taken that schizophrenia and depression are determined by biology, then treatment will target genes/neurotransmitters, however this blocks consideration of other possibly beneficial treatments such as CBT
54
What are the evaluation points for free will?
The illusion of free will, culturally relative, and research challenge to free will
55
How is 'the illusion of free will' an evaluation point for free will?
Just being able to decide between different courses of action is not free will, but it may give us the illusion of having free will, an argument put forward by behaviourist Skinner. His point was that a person might 'choose' to buy a particular car or see a particular film, but in fact these choices are determined by previous reinforcement experiences
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How is 'culturally relative' an evaluation point for free will?
Idea of self-determination may be a culturally relative concept, appropriate for individualist societies only. Collectivist cultures place greater value on behaviour determined by group needs
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How is 'research challenge to free will' an evaluation point for free will?
Free will position received significant blow from research by Libet et al. They recorded activity in motor areas of brain before person had conscious awareness of decision to move their finger. The decision to move the finger (a conscious state) was simply a 'read out' of a pre-determined action. Follow up research confirmed findings, eg Chun Siong Soon et al found activity in prefrontal cortex up to 10 seconds before person was aware of decision to act. However other researchers have conducted similar studies and reached different conclusion. Eg Trevana and Miller showed brain activity was simply 'readiness to act' rather than intention to move. For the moment it seems that neuroscience still supports free will
58
What is the nature-nurture debate?
The argument as to whether a person's development is mainly due to their genes or to environmental influences
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What are examples of the influence of nature?
Genetic explanations (family, twin and adoption studies) eg concordance rate for schizophrenia, and evolutionary explanations eg Bowlby proposed attachment was adaptive
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What are examples of the influence of nurture?
Locke described newborns as a tabula rosa (blank slate) which was adopted by behaviourism which is an example of the influence of nurture, eg conditioning. Social learning theory (Bandura) and other explanations such as double bind theory for schizophrenia
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What is the political debate surrounding nature-nurture debate?
Contrasting concepts of human nature have tended to correlate with contrasting political ideals. On one side, 'nature; has linked to 20th century eugenics (enforced selective breeding) as advocated by Nazis. If nature determines behaviour then human race can be improved by selective breeding. Even US and many other countries have practiced selective breeding by sterilising 'feeble minded'. The other side, 'environment' idea is popular with those who believe any human trait can be altered with appropriate changes in social institutions. Led to equally brutal regimes such as Stalin and Pol Pot who believed you could engineer behaviour of others through conditioning so they behave how you wish
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What are the evaluation points for the nature-nurture debate?
Nature and nurture cannot be separated, diathesis stress, nature affects nurture, nurture affects nature, and epigenetics
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How is 'nature and nurture cannot be separated' an evaluation point for the nature-nurture debate?
When asked whether nature was more important, Hebb said it was the same as asking whether the length or width of a rectangle was more important when working out area of a rectangle-a meaningless question as they both contribute. Classic example of this is the disorder phenylketonuria, an inherited disorder preventing amino acid phenylalanine being metabolised, resulting in brain damage. However if condition is detected at birth, the infant can be given a diet devoid of phenylalanine and brain damage is averted. If prevention can be achieved through environmental manipulation, is the condition due to nature or nurture?
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How is 'diathesis stress' an evaluation point for the nature-nurture debate?
Diathesis stress model is a conceptualisation of the interaction between nature and nurture. It can explain mental disorders such as phobias or schizophrenia. A diathesis is biological vulnerability eg being born with certain genes that predispose individual to developing a disorder. However not everyone with those genes develop that disorder. Expression of the gene depends on experience in form of a 'stressor' that triggers the condition. So person's nature is only expressed under certain conditions of nurture
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How is 'nature affects nurture' an evaluation point for the nature-nurture debate?
Genes may exert indirect effect in number of ways. Genetic factors create infant's microenvironment. Eg a child who is genetically more aggressive may provoke aggressive response in others. This response becomes part of child's environment and affects their development. Plomin et al call this reactive gene-environment interaction as child is reacting to genetically influenced behaviour. Second way Plomin identifies is passive influence where parents' genes determine aspects of behaviour eg parent with genetically determined mental illness creates unsettled home environment which can indirectly cause child's mental illness. Thirdly is an active influence that Scarr and McCartney call niche picking where children seek experiences and environments that suit their genes, and this influence of genes increases as children get older
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How is 'nurture affects nature' an evaluation point for the nature-nurture debate?
Maguire et al's study of London taxi drivers show how life experience shapes biology as taxi drivers had larger hippocampi associated with spatial memory. This isn't because they were born this way but because their hippocampi had responded to increased use. Blakemore and Cooper's work with kittens found similar things-their innate visual system was altered through experience
67
How is 'epigenetics' an evaluation point for the nature-nurture debate?
Epigenetics refers to material in each cell that acts like a set of 'switches' to turn genes on or off. Life experiences, such as nutrition/stress control these switches and the switches are passed on to subsequent generations. Therefore twins may produce children who differ in weight even if they eat identical diets, because of the epigenetic material they inherited, which was derived from an environmental effect. This explains why cloning doesn't produce identical copies. It means genetics and environment are much less separate than was previously thought
68
What is reductionism?
An approach that breaks complex phenomenon into more simple components implying that this is desirable because complex phenomena are best understood in terms of a simpler level of explanation?
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What are levels of explanation?
Reductionism suggests explanations begin at the highest level and progressively look at component elements. We can consider any behaviour in terms of all three levels (highest, middle and lower levels)
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What is the highest level of explanation?
Cultural and social explanations of how our social groups affect our behaviour
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What is the middle level of explanation?
Psychological explanations of behaviour
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What is the lower level of explanation?
Biological explanations of how hormones and genes etc affect our behaviour
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What is an example of how behaviour can be considered in terms of all three levels of explanation?
Memory can be explained at a social level in terms of how cultural expectations affect what we remember. It can be explained at a psychological level in terms of episodic memories. It can be explained at a biological level in terms of the areas of the brain where the memories are stored (hippocampus and temporal lobe) and the neurotransmitters involved in forming memories (eg acetylcholine)
74
What is biological reductionism?
Since all animals are made up of atoms, then human behaviour must be explained at this level - can be reduced to a physical level. Biological psychologists reduce behaviours to the action of neutrons, neurotransmitters, hormones, etc. A popular way to explain mental illness is in terms of such units, eg suggested that schizophrenia is caused by excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine because the drugs that block this neurotransmitter reduce the symptoms of the disorder
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What is environmental reductionism?
Behaviourist explanations suggest that all behaviour can be explained in terms of simple stimulus-response links (behaviour can be reduced to a simple relationship between behaviour and events in the environment). Examples of such explanations include the behaviourist explanation offered for attachment. The complex emotion of attachment is reduced to a set of probabilities: the mother is likely to provide food which is reinforcing (reduces discomfort), hence she is a rewarding individual and so becomes a ‘loved one’
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What is experimental reductionism?
Reducing complex behaviours to isolated variables is a useful strategy for conducting research. It underlies the experimental approach where behaviours are reduced to operationalised variables that can be manipulated and measured to determine causal relationships
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What is holism?
With respect to a behaviour such as memory of mental disorders, perceiving the whole experience rather than the individual features and/or the relations between them. Looks at systems as a whole and suggests we cannot predict how the whole system will behave from just the knowledge of the individual components. This means the reductionist explanations would only play a limited role in understanding behaviour
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What are three examples of where holism is used?
Gestalt psychology, humanistic psychology, and cognitive psychology
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What is gestalt psychology?
‘Gestalten’ means ‘the whole’ in German and was an approach favoured by a group of German psychologists in the first part of the 20th century. They focused especially on perception, arguing that explanations for what we see only make sense through a consideration of the whole rather than the individual elements, as illustrate by some types of optical illusions
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What is humanistic psychology?
Humanistic psychologists believe that the individual reacts as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimulus-response links. What matters most is a persons sense of a unified identity, and thus a lack of identity or sense of ‘wholeness’ leads to a mental disorder
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What is cognitive psychology?
Memory is a complex system which in recent years has been understood in terms of connectionist networks. The idea of a network is that each unit (such as a neuron) is linked to many other units (other neurons). These links develop through experience and, which each new experience, the links are strengthened or weakened. Connectionist networks are described as holist because the network as a whole behaves differently than the individual parts; linear models however assume that the sum of the parts equal the whole
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What are the evaluation points for holism and reductionism?
The danger of lower levels of explanation, biological reductionism, environmental reductionism, experimental reductionism, and the mind-body problem (an interactionist approach)
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How is ‘the danger of lower levels of explanation’ an evaluation point for holism and reductionism?
Lower levels are part of any account of behaviour, but offering accounts at different levels creates problems. If lower levels are taken in isolation, then the meaning of behaviour may be overlooked which can lead to fundamental errors of understanding. Eg Wolpe developed systematic desensitisation and treated a woman for fear of insects but later found her husband (hadn’t been getting a long with) was given an insect nickname, so her fear was representing marital problems, it was not due to conditioning. To focus on behavioural level and ignore meaning would have been an error. Also lower level explanations may distract us from a more appropriate level of explanation. Eg administering amphetamine Ritalin to hyperactive child may miss the real cause of the hyperactivity, eg family or emotional problems
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How is ‘biological reductionism’ an evaluation point for holism and reductionism?
A consequence of biological explanations has been development of drug therapies. Strengths of such treatments is they have led to considerable reduction in institutionalisation since 1950s. Also a more humane approach to treatment of mental illness as it does not blame the patient, which may in turn, lead to greater tolerance of the mentally ill. On the other hand, drug therapies are fraught with difficulties. Success rates are variable and they treat symptoms, not causes, so may not have lasting effects. Reducing mental illness to biological level ignores context and function of such behaviour. Psychological explanations take more account of these and have produced many successful therapies
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How is ‘environmental reductionism’ an evaluation point for holism and reductionism?
Behavioural approach was developed as a result of experiments with non-human animals. It may be appropriate to explain their behaviour in terms of simple components, but such explanations may not be appropriate for more complex human behaviour. Humans are not scaled-up versions of other animals - their behaviour is influenced by social context, intentions etc. Even in non-human animals, reductionist explanations ignore other possible influences such as cognitive/emotional factors
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How is ‘experimental reductionism’ an evaluation point for holism and reductionism?
Reducing behaviour to a fork that can be studied is productive and may be necessary part of understanding how things work. Experimental research in psychology produced huge array of findings about behaviour, but question is his much the findings actually tell us about everyday life. Eg research into eyewitness testimony - findings from lab experiments such as Loftus and Palmer haven’t always been confirmed by studies of real life eyewitnesses where memories have been found to be highly accurate (eg Yuille and Cutshall). Operationalisation of variables such as eyewitness testimony may result in something measurable but bares no resemblance to real thing. Also in real life other factors motivate performance which can it be recreated in experiment and so findings often do not reflect real world
87
How is ‘the mind-body problem (an interactionist approach)’ an evaluation point for holism and reductionism?
Mind-body problem is an issue with reductionist perspective. It is the problem of describing the relationship between mind and body/brain. One solution (materialism) suggests ultimately everything is reducible to physical world. Problems with this is it assumes physical basis of behaviour has causal link to highest level, whereas we can inky observe that certain physical events are associated with mental events. Eg certain electrical activity in brain is associated with subjective reports of dreaming (no direct cause has yet been found). Another solution is to analyse how the different levels of explanation interact. Dualists believe in a physical brain and non-physical ‘mind’ which interact with each other. Research shows mind can affect biology eg Martin found depressed patients given psychotherapy had same changes in serotonin and norepinephrine levels than those given drugs. Kandel points out such physiological changes should not be surprising because we know that learning creates new neuronal connections
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What is the idiographic approach?
It focuses on individuals and emphasises uniqueness; favours qualitative methods in research. This approach involves the study of individuals and the unique insights each individual gives us about human behaviour
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Why is the idiographic approach qualitative?
Because the focus is on gaining insights into human behaviour by studying unique individuals in depth rather than gaining numerical data from many individuals and determining average characteristics. The focus is on the quality of information rather than quantity. It is also qualitative because it employs qualitative methods such as unstructured interviews, case studies and thematic analysis
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What are three examples of the idiographic approach?
Freud, humanistic psychology, and the study of Jenny
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How is Freud an example of the idiographic approach?
Freud used case studies of patients as a way to understand human behaviour, such as the case of Little Hans. This case consists of almost 150 pages of verbatim irked by Han’s father and description of events in Han’s life, plus Freud’s own interpretations of the events. Freud did produce generalisations from his case studies, but these are still idiographic because they are drawn from unique individuals
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How is humanistic psychology an example of the idiographic approach
Humanistic psychologists also favour the idiographic approach as they are concerned with studying the whole person and seeing the world from the perspective of that person. What matters is the person’s subjective experience and not something that someone else might observe if their behaviour
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How is the study of Jenny an example of the idiographic approach?
The study of Jenny by Allport was used by him as a way to support his theory of personality. Allport believed that this idiographic perspective could tell us more about human behaviour and personality than could the use of personality tests, which could only provide statistical information. In fact he called his approach the ‘psychology of the individual’
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What is the nomothetic approach?
Seeks to formulate general laws of behaviour based on the study of groups and the use of statistical (quantitative) techniques. It attempts to summarise the differences between people through generalisations. It involves the study of a large number of people and then seeks to make generalisations or develop laws/theories about their behaviour. This is also the goal of the scientific approach
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Why is the nomothetic approach quantitative?
Quantitative research is based on numbers-measures of central tendency and dispersion, graphs and statistical analysis. Such calculations require data from groups of people rather than individuals. Research studies may only involve 20 people, but normative research, such as establishing norms for IQ tests, involve thousands of participants
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What are examples of the nomothetic approach?
The biological approach, behaviourist psychologists, cognitive psychology, and Eysenck’s psychometric approach to personality
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How is the biological approach an example of the nomothetic approach?
Biological approach seeks to portray the basic principles of how the body and brain work. This approach has sometimes mistakenly studied men and assumed that the same processes would occur in women, eg the stress response
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How are behaviourist psychologists examples of the nomothetic approach?
Behaviourist psychologists produced general laws of behaviour-classical and operant conditioning. Their research may not have involved thousands of human participants, which is the more typical nomothetic approach, but they were seeking one set of rules for all animals-humans and non humans
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How is cognitive psychology an example of the nomothetic approach?
Cognitive psychology is also a nomothetic approach in its aim to develop general laws of behaviour which apply to all people, such as understanding typical memory processes. The cognitive approach does use case studies (such as HM), but these are required because, in order to understand the working of the normal mind, it is often necessary to look at rare abnormal cases
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How is Eysenck’s psychometric approach to personality an example of the nomothetic approach?
His approach is considered as a comparison with Allport’s research on personality. Psychometric literally means measuring psychological characteristics such as personality and intelligence. Large groups of people are tested, and the distribution of their scores informs us about what is normal and abnormal. In the case of personality, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire was used to collect large amounts of data which used factor analysis to produce personality types. Factor analysis is a statistical test that reduces data to a smaller set of component variables
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What are the evaluation points for idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation?
Focus on the individual level, scientific basis, being able to make predictions, time consuming, and combined methods
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How is ‘focus on the individual level’ an evaluation point for the idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation?
Humanistic psychologists and qualitative psychologists in the latter half of the last century felt that there was too much emphasis on measurement and that psychologists had lost sight of what it was to be human. Allport, who was the first to use the terms idiographic and nomothetic argued that a drastic reorientation was needed and that’s what the idiographic approach did. Allport argued that it is only by knowing the person as a person that we can predict what that person will do in any situation. Therefore the great strength of the idiographic approach has been to focus psychology back in the more individual level
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How is ‘scientific basis’ an evaluation point for the idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation?
Criticism made if the idiographic approach is it is not scientific. This is one of the reasons for recent growth in positive psychology whose view is that humanistic psychology was not sufficiently evidence based and therefore any ‘findings’ were essentially meaningless. Positive approach aims to be more evidence-based. Same criticisms can’t be made about other idiographic approaches eg case studies or qualitative research, which do use evidence based approach and seek to be objective. Eg qualitative approaches use reflexivity to identify influence of any biases. Reflexivity refers to process where researcher reflects or thinks critically during the research process where researcher reflects or thinks critically during research process about factors that affect the behaviour of both researchers and participants
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How is ‘being able to make predictions’ an evaluation point for the idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation?
Idiographic approach may be scientific, but inability to produce general predictions about behaviour is limiting. Such general predictions can be useful, eg in producing drugs to treat mental illness. It would be far too time consuming to produce personal therapies question individuals therefore we need to make predictions about most likely therapeutic solutions. However, Allport argued idiographic approach does enable predictions. Once researcher builds up extremely detailed observations of few individuals, this can be used to make generalisations and formulate theories. Hall and Lindzey argue this stance makes Allport’s approach basically nomothetic rather than idiographic
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How is ‘time consuming’ an evaluation point for the idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation?
Idiographic approach is more time consuming. Both approaches are based on large amounts of data, but one is in terms of collecting large amounts of data about one person (idiographic) and the other is in terms of number of people (nomothetic). Collecting large amounts of data from a group of people takes time but, relatively speaking, is quicker because, once you have devised a questionnaire or psychological test, data. Can be generated and processed quickly
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How is ‘combined methods’ an evaluation point for the idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation?
Holt argued idiographic/nomothetic distinction is false separation because inevitably generalisations are made. Holt claimed there is no such thing as a unique individual and what idiographic approaches actually do is generate general principles (idiographic ends up being nomothetic). Millon and Davis suggested research should start with nomothetic approach and, once 'laws' have been created then focus more on idiographic understanding. Number of approaches combine the two, as Freud did who used idiographic methods to study people then used the insights to produce general laws
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What is one of the major ethical factors in the process of scientific research?
The responsibility scientists have for the way their research is used
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What did Sieber and Stanley produce?
A landmark paper on the issues related to research that has social consequences. They pointed out that the ethical guidelines produced by the American Psychological Association referred to the social implications of research but offered no advice about how such ethical issues might be resolved. Their paper offered a way forward
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What four aspects in the research process did Sieber and Stanley identify where ethical issues with social consequences may occur?
The research question, conduct of research and treatment of participants, the institutional context, interpretation/application of findings
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How can ethical issues with social consequences occur due to the research question?
Simply asking a research question (such as 'are there racial differences in IQ?' or 'is homosexuality inherited?') may be damaging to members of a particular group because it appears to add scientific credibility to the prevailing prejudice
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How can ethical issues with social consequences occur due to the conduct of research and treatment of participants?
The main concern is the confidentiality of the information collected (eg if a participant confesses to a crime, should confidentiality be maintained?)
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How can ethical issues with social consequences occur due to the institutional context?
Research may be funded and managed by private institutions who may misuse the data or may misunderstand the data that is produced (eg the All Trials Campaign). The media may obtain reports of such research and misreport the findings
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What is the All Trials Campaign?
Psychologists rely on research into drug therapies to inform ways of treating mental disorders such as depression. Much/all research on drug therapies is funded by pharmaceutical companies who have been accused of selective publication of data from such research. Eg it is likely companies don't publish data that may harm their sales. The All Trials Campaign has called for all research to be made public, and in addition, all research should be pre-registered. This would include stating intended statistical analysis so researchers cannot process data in a way to make outcome look more favourable to the drug. Other issues include fact researchers often have to agree that institutional sponsors can censor the data. The PhRMA has defended itself saying such disclosures would reduce patients' privacy and result in production of fewer new drugs
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How can ethical issues with social consequences occur due to the interpretation and application of findings?
Research findings may be used for purposes other than originally intended. Eg, the development of IQ tests by psychologists was subsequently used to demonstrate inferiority of certain groups of people and was also used to identify the 'feeble-minded' who could then be sterilised (a practice in the US in the early 20th century)
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What is socially sensitive research?
Any research that may have direct social consequences for the participants in the research or the group they represent
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What ten types of ethical issue that relate especially to socially sensitive research did Sieber and Stanley identify?
Privacy, confidentiality, valid methodology, deception, informed consent, equitable treatment, scientific freedom, ownership of data, values, and risk/benefit ration
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How can privacy relate especially to socially sensitive research?
During the research process, a skilled investigator may extract more information from participants than they intended to give. Some research (eg AIDS research) may lead to social policies that are an invasion of people's private lives (eg through compulsory testing)
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How can confidentiality relate especially to socially sensitive research?
Participants may be less willing to divulge information in the future if confidentiality is breached and further related research would be compromised
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How can valid methodology relate especially to socially sensitive research?
In cases of poor methodology (and therefore invalid findings), scientists may be aware of these problems, but the media and the public may not, and this poor studies might shape important social policy to the detriment of those groups represented by the research
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How can deception relate especially to socially sensitive research?
Includes self-deception whereby research may lead people to form untrue stereotypes (eg believing that women are less good at maths), which then affects one's own performance
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How can informed consent relate especially to socially sensitive research?
Potential participants may not always comprehend what is involved
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How can equitable treatment relate especially to socially sensitive research?
All participants should be treated in an equitable manner, and resources which are vital to the participants' well being (eg educational opportunities) are not withheld from one group whilst being available to another
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How can scientific freedom relate especially to socially sensitive research?
The scientist has a duty to engage in research but at the same time has an obligation not to harm participants as well as institutions in society
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How can ownership of data relate especially to socially sensitive research?
Some of the problems with determining ownership involve the sponsorship of research (eg a university department or commercial organisation) and the public accessibility of data
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How can values relate especially to socially sensitive research?
Psychologists differ in their orientation towards subjective (idiographic) approaches and more objective (scientific) approaches. Sensitive issues arise when there is a clash in such values between the scientist and recipient of the research
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How can risk/benefit ratio relate especially to socially sensitive research?
Risks or costs should be minimised, but problems arise in determining risks as well as benefits
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What are the evaluation points for the ethical implications of research studies and theory?
The wider impact of research, the inadequacy of current ethical guidelines, may disadvantage marginalised groups, should socially sensitive research just be avoided?, and engaging with the public and policymakers
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How is 'the wider impact of research' an evaluation point for the ethical implications of research studies and theory?
Always some social consequences to participation in research, but with socially sensitive research there is increased potential for more indirect impact on participant's family, co-workers, or maybe even group that the participant represents (eg addicts, women, elderly etc). It does not seem sufficient, therefore to simply safeguard the interests of the individual in the research-there must also be some consideration of the likely impact of the research on the larger group of which the participant is a member
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How is 'the inadequacy of current ethical guidelines' an evaluation point for the ethical implications of research studies and theory?
Psychologists typically deal with ethical issues in research by development of strict guidelines for conduct of their studies. Ethical guidelines may protect immediate needs of research participants, but may not deal with all possible ways research may inflict harm on a group of people or section of society. Eg at present, ethical guidelines don't ask researchers to consider how their research may be used by others, as recommended by Sieber and Stanley. Therefore considerations outlined some time ago have not yet permeated into professional practice
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How is 'may disadvantage marginalised groups' an evaluation point for the ethical implications of research studies and theory?
Many groups in society have suffered consequences of being excluded from research/being misrepresented when they have been included. May be argued our understanding of human behaviour has been lessened by misrepresentations of, or failure to include, representative samples of persons with disabilities, the elderly, the disadvantaged and members of minority cultures. Failure to accurately represent and research such groups carries with it an additional ethical issue - the fact that these groups then miss out on any potential benefits of research
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How is 'should socially sensitive research just be avoided?' an evaluation point for the ethical implications of research studies and theory?
May be tempting to think solution to problem of handling socially sensitive research may be to try to avoid it, eg avoid research on homosexuality, race, gender, addiction etc because findings may have negative consequences for participants, for section of society they represent, or the whole of society. However, this would probably leave psychologists with nothing to examine but unimportant issues. Sieber and Stanley'v view is that to ignore sensitive research is not a responsible approach to science and suggest that avoiding controversial topics just for being controversial is also an avoidance of responsibility. Psychologists have a duty to conduct such research
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How is 'engaging with the public and policymakers' an evaluation point for the ethical implications of research studies and theory?
This research has important applications. In order to reduce likelihood of misuse of data, psychologists should be energetic in taking responsibility for what happens to their findings. Should be aware of possibility that results of their search may lead to abuse and discrimination, or as Sieber and Stanley suggest, offer 'scientific credibility to the prevailing prejudice'. British Psychological society has a press centre which aims to promote evidence-based psychological research to media, but it is really matter for individual researchers to see it part of research process to promote their research in socially sensitive way, as opposed to the neutral position some scientists wish to take
