Socioogy-RM-Participant observation Flashcards
(35 cards)
What are the different types of observation?
Non-participant (researcher observed group without taking part in it eg may use two way mirror), participant (researcher takes part in an event or everyday life of group while observing it), overt (researcher is open and makes their true identity and purpose known to those being studied) and covert (study is carried out ‘under cover’-researchers real identity and purpose are kept concealed from those being studied, and researcher takes a false identity and role)
What type of observation is actual research normally?
Actual research does not always fit into one or other of these categories, eg Whyte’s study of ‘street corners of society’ was semi-overt. He revealed his real purpose to a key member of the group, but not to others
What are most observations like in sociology?
Unstructured participant observation. However, positivist sociologists in particular do occasionally use structured observation, which is normally non-participant
What are structured observations?
The researcher used a structured observational schedule to categorise systematically what happens. The schedule is pre-determined list of types of behaviour or situations the sociologist is interested in. Each time an instance of such behaviour occurs, the sociologist records it on the schedule. The numbers of times each event occurs is added to which produces quantitative data, from which patterns and correlations can then be established
How can observations be used alongside other methods?
They can be used in conjunction with other methods, eg, when interviewing, the researcher may observe interviewees’ body language to gauge whether or not they are telling the truth
What are the main issues when deciding to conduct a participant observation study?
Getting in/staying in/getting out, and whether to use overt or cover observation
What is ‘getting in’?
Have to gain entry to group. Some groups are easier to enter than others, eg football crowd easier to enter than joining a criminal gang. Making initial contact depends on personal skills/connections/chance. Then have to win trust and acceptance, eg by making friends with key individuals/ Age/gender/class/ethnicity of researcher can be an obstacle though. There is then a question of what role the researcher should adopt, but ideally it should be one that doesn’t disrupt group’s normal pattern, and offer good vantage point to make observations, though it isn’t always possible to take a role that is unobtrusive and good vantage point-some roles may also taking sides in conflict making observation harder
What sociologists provide examples of making contact?
Polsky was good at pool and found his skill useful in gaining entry to the world of the poolroom hustler. Patrick was able to join a Glasgow gang because he looked young and knew one of its members from having taught him in approved school (young offenders’ institutions). Fairhurst found herself hospitalised by back trouble and used the opportunity to conduct a study on being a patient
What sociologists provide examples of gaining acceptance?
Thornton made friends with Kate in her study of clubbing and rave scene, but she slowly aged out of the peer group and felt like a stranger due to her nationality. Liebow succeeded in gaining acceptance by black street-corner gang in Washington DC. Griffin was white and used medication and sun lamp treatments to change his skin colour and pass as black in a time and place where everything was racially segregated and black people faced discrimination
What sociologists provide examples of the observer’s role?
Whyte succeeded in achieving both aims of the observer’s role by refusing all leadership roles, with the one exception of secretary of the community club, a position that allowed him to take many notes under the disguise of taking the minutes of meetings
What is ‘staying in’?
Researcher needs to be able to stay in group and complete the study. Key problem for participant observer is having to be involved in the group to understand it fully but stay detached to remain objective and unbiased.
What is ‘going native’?
Danger of staying in group is becoming over-involved or ‘going native’. By over-identifying with the group, the researcher becomes biased. When this happens, they stop being objective observer and become a member of the group. Eg Punch found that in striving to be accepted by tight-knit patrol group he was studying, he over-identified with them and acted as a policeman himself. Other extreme, researcher may preserve their detachment to avoid bias, but by doing so they risk not understanding events they observe. Rock says there needs to be balance between the two extremes but it’s very difficult. Also more time spent in the group, the less strange its ways appear and as Whyte said, things that would seem unusual or noteworthy earlier on, now seem ‘normal’-observer is less observant
What is ‘getting out’?
Practically, getting out of the group at the end of the study generally presents fewer problems than getting in/staying in. Worst comes to worse you can simply just leave (Patrick just left after he was sickened by the gangs violence). It can be easier if the observation was overt, though it is still hard if the researcher can become close with the group. Also re-entering one’s normal world can be difficult. Plus loyalty may prevent full disclosure of everything that has been learnt for fear of harming group members
What was Whyte’s problem with ‘getting out’?
When he returned to Harvard University after his research, he was tongue-toed and unable to communicate with fellow academics. These problems can be made worse if research is conducted on and off over a period of time, with multiple ‘crossings’ between the two worlds
What are the advantages of an overt observation?
Avoids ethical problem of obtaining information by deceit and won’t be expected to join in activities of deviant groups if they are being studied for example. Allows observer to ask the naïve but important questions that only an outsider could ask. Observer can openly take notes, and it allows the researcher to use interview methods to check insights derived from observations
What are the two major disadvantages of overt observation?
A group may refuse the researcher permission (Eg two Amsterdam police officers that Punch did his research with, later told him ‘when you were with us, we only let you see what we wanted you to see’) and it risks creating the Hawthorne effect (where those who know they are being observed behave differently as a result, undermining the validity of the data)
What are the practical advantages of covert observation?
Reduces risk of altering behaviour and is sometimes the only way to obtain valid information. Especially when studying behaviours people want to keep secret-as found by Humphreys who studied gay men’s sexual encounters in public toilets. If they knew they were being observed, they would change or conceal their behaviour and so the main advantage of observation-that it preserves the naturalness of people’s behaviour-would be lost
What are the practical problems with covert observation?
Requires researcher to keep up an act, and may call for detailed knowledge of group’s way of life before even joining. Risk of cover being ‘blown’ by even a trivial mistake, which would likely bring research to an abrupt end and may, in the case of some criminal groups, lead to physical harm. Also sociologist cannot take notes openly so must rely on memory and opportunity to write them in secret. Also researcher cannot ask naïve but important questions, or combine the observation with other methods such as interviews. Plus, although pretending to be an insider reduces risk of Hawthorne Effect, the addition of a new member can still change the group’s behaviour and reduce validity
How was Patrick’s almost ‘found out’ in his covert observation?
When he bought his suit with cash instead of credit and when he fastened the middle button of his jacket rather than the top one-things the gang would never have done
What does Polsky note as a disadvantage of covert observation?
That you should not pretend to be “one of them” because they will test you and you will either find yourself involved in illegal activities, or your cover will be blown. This was something Patrick also discovered when the gang he was studying handed him an axe to use in an expected flight
How have sociologists struggled with the fact that they cannot openly write notes?
Festinger et al, studying a religious sect that predicted the imminent end of the world, and Ditton, studying theft among bread deliverymen, had to use toilets as a place for recording their observations. In Ditton’s case, this eventually aroused suspicion
What are the ethical issues of covert observations?
Immoral to deceive people, obtaining information by pretending to be their friend or in a similar situation. Informed consent should be gained after the purpose of the study and use of findings has been explained. Covert observers may have to lie about reasons for leaving the group. Others such as Patrick abandon the group without explanation-critics argue this is unethical. May have to participate in immoral/illegal activities as part of their ‘cover’ role. Similarly, as witnesses to such activities, they may have moral/legal duty to intervene or report them to police
What are the advantages of participant observation?
Validity, insight, flexibility, and practical advantages
How is validity an advantage of participant observation?
What people say they do when asked in a questionnaire and what they actually do in real life, are not always the same thing. By contrast, by actually observing people they can obtain rich qualitative data that provides a picture of how they really live. Supporters of participant observation argue this is the method’s main strength, and most other advantages are linked to this
