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Biology > Reproduction > Flashcards

Reproduction Flashcards

1
Q

What characteristcs do all mammals share?

A

Mammary Glands
Three Bones in Middle Ear
One bone in Lower Jaw
Fur/Hair
Sebaceous (oil) and Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands
Heterodont Dentification (different teeth)

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2
Q

Diploid (2n)

A

share 2 copies of each chromosomes

autosomal cells

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3
Q

Haploid (n)

A

one copy of each chromosome

germ cells

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4
Q

The Stages of Cell Cycle

A

G1 , S, G2, M

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5
Q

G1, S and G2 are known as…

A

interphase, the longest part of cell cycle

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6
Q

Cells that do NOT divide are in the…

A

G0 phase, they just perform a function and do not divide

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7
Q

During interphase, chromosomes are not visible, they are in the form of….because…

A

chromatin so the DNA is available for transcription

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8
Q

G1 Stage

A

cells create organelles for energy and protein production but also grow

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9
Q

To go from G1 to S phase…

A

must pass through restriction point where it checks from proper complement of DNA

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10
Q

S Stage

A

cell replicates its genetic material for each daughter cell

Each chromosome is now two identical chromatids

NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES IS SAME, JUST CHROMATIDS IS DOUBLED

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11
Q

Chromatid

A

made during S phase with condensing and replication of DNA to be bound at centromere

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12
Q

G2 Phase

A

cell has twice as much DNA now than in G1

another checkpoint to make sure there are enough organelles/cytoplasm for division and that DNA has been properly replicated

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13
Q

M Phase

A

mitosis and cytokinesis

4 stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase

cytokinesis is the splitting into two cells

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14
Q

If there has been any damage to the DNA the cell cycle goes into arrest until DNA is repaired, the main protein involved in this process is….

A

p53

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15
Q

Cyclins and Cyclin Dependent kinases (CDKs)

A

molecules responsible for cell cycle

CDK is activated by specific cyclins to activate and phosphorylate transcription factors to transcript genes for next stage of cell cycle

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16
Q

Most common mutation to cause cancer…

A

mutation of p53 gene, the TP53

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17
Q

Cancer

A

uncontrolled cell division caused by allowing DNA to not properly be replicated and produce cells growths known as tumors

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18
Q

Metastasis

A

invasion of cancerous cells to other parts of the body

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19
Q

Mitosis occurs in….

A

somatic cells, those not involved in sexual reproduction

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20
Q

Prophase

A

chromatin condenses to chromosomes

centriole pairs separate and move towards opposite poles of the cell to the centrosome

Nuclear membrane goes away

centrioles prepare spindle fibers which can either anchor the centriole to the cellular membrane or attach to centromere of chromosomes via kinetochores

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21
Q

Centriole

A

produce spindle fibers (made of microtubules) to attach to cell membrane or chromosomes

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22
Q

Centrosome

A

region where centrioles are kept

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23
Q

Spindle fibers

A

come from centrioles, made of microtubuleles

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24
Q

Asters

A

spindle fibers which anchor centrioles to the cell membrane

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25
Q

Kinetochores

A

protein structures on centromeres that are attatchment points for kinetochore fibers

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26
Q

Kinetochore Fibers

A

spindle fibers that bind to kinetochores of the centromeres of the chromosomes

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27
Q

Metaphase

A

kinetochore fibers interact with fibers of spindle apparatus to align the chromosomes at the metaphase plate

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28
Q

Anaphase

A

centromeres split so each chromatid has its own centromere

sister chromatids are now separated and pulled towards the opposite ends of the cell

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29
Q

Telophase

A

spindle apparatus disappears, nuclear membrane reforms around chromosomes and chromosomes uncondense

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30
Q

Cytokinesis

A

separation of cytoplasm and organelles so there is enough for each cell

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31
Q

Meiosis occurs in…and result in…

A

gametocytes (germ cells) , identical sex cells known as gametes

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32
Q

Meiosis 1 vs Meiosis 2

A

M1: results in homologous chromosomes being seperated resulting in haploid daughter cells

M2: similar to mitsosis where seperation of sister chromatids occurs

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33
Q

Reductional Division

A

Meiosis one, haploid daughter cells are created

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34
Q

Equational Division

A

Meiosis 2, similar to mitosis where sister chromatid are separated

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35
Q

Homologous Pairs

A

2 separate chromosomes paired together when lined up in meiosis, one chromosome from each parent

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36
Q

Prophase 1

A

chromatin condenses into chromosomes, spindle apparatus forms

homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine and from tetrads

crossing over may occur

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37
Q

Synapsis

A

the intertwining process of homologous chromosomes

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38
Q

Tetrad

A

formed when homologous chromosomes are paired, referes to the total of 4 chromatids

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39
Q

Synaptonemal Complex

A

How tetrads are bound together

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40
Q

Crossing Over

A

When chromosomes in tetrad break equivalent amounts of DNA at chiasmas and switch

can be single or double

OCCURS BETWEEN HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES NOT SISTER CHROMATID

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41
Q

Chiasma

A

point of contact for chromatids in tetrad

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42
Q

Linkage

A

tendency of genes to be inherited together; genes located further away are more likely to undergo crossing over when compared to one another

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43
Q

Mendels Second Law of Independent Assortment

A

inheritance of one allele has no effect on the likelihood of inheriting certain alleles for other genes

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44
Q

Metaphase 1

A

homologous pairs align at metaphase plate and each pair is attached to a separate spindle fiber

main difference is each homologous chromosome is across one another and attached to a spindle fiber where as in mitosis each chromosome is attached to 2 spindle fibers

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45
Q

Anaphase 1

A

homologous pairs separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell through disjunction leading to segregation with each daughter cell randomly getting one of the two homologous chromosomes

46
Q

Disjunction

A

separation of homologous chromosomes to opposite side of the poles, accounts for Mendels First Law of Segregation

47
Q

Telophase 1

A

Nuclear membrane forms around the chromosomes and daughter chromatids still attached.

Cells are now haploid

cytokinesis splits the cell into 2 daughter cells

48
Q

Interkinesis

A

between cell divisions a short rest period where chromosomes uncoil

49
Q

Prophase 2

A

nuclear envelope dissolves, centrioles migrate to poles and spindle apparatus forms

50
Q

Metaphase 2

A

chromosomes line up at metaphseal plate

51
Q

Anaphase 2

A

centromeres split and sister chromatids split to opposite poles

52
Q

Telophase 2

A

nuclear membrane forms, cytokinesis follors to create two more daughter cells to lead to a total of 4 haploid daughter cells per gametocyte

53
Q

Sex Linked Disorders

A

X Chromosome carries a sizeable amount of genetic information in which mutation causes this

recessively inherited

54
Q

Sex Linked Carriers

A

Women that do no express the disease but carry the allele

55
Q

Y chromosome

A

carries very little genetic information

56
Q

SRY gene

A

on Y chromosome, codes for a transcription factor to initiate testis differentiation and male gonads

hence lack of Y chromosome all are female

57
Q

Testes

A

where gonads develop(semineferous tubules and interstitial cells)

58
Q

Semineferous Tubules

A

produces sperm nourished by Sertoli cells

59
Q

Interstitial Cells

A

secrete testosterone and androgens

60
Q

Androgens

A

male sex hormones

61
Q

Scrotum

A

holds testes and maintains temperature 2-4 degrees lower than body ; done with layer of muscle around vas deferns

62
Q

Epididymis

A

sperm are sent where flagella gain motility and stored until ejaculation

63
Q

Ejaculation

A

sperm goes through vas deferens to ejaculatory duct at prostate gland and then to the urethra

64
Q

In males the ____ and ___ share common pathway, not the case with females

A

reproductive and urinary

65
Q

Seminal Fluid

A

produced through seminal vessecles, prostate gland and bulbourethral gland ; sperm passes through this fluid

66
Q

Seminal Vesicles and Prostate Gland

A

give fructose to nourish the sperm; both make sperm alkaline to survive acidity of female reproductive tract

67
Q

Bulbourethral Glands

A

produces fluid to clean out urine/lubriates during arousal

68
Q

Semen

A

combination of sperm and seminal fluid

69
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

formation of haploid sperm throough meiosis in the semineferous tubules

70
Q

Spermatogonia

A

Diploid Stem Cells

71
Q

Primary Spermatocytes
Secondary Spermatocytes
Spermatids
Spermatozoa

A

after replication in S phase
after Meiosis 1
after Meiosis 2
Maturation leading to 4 functional sperm

72
Q

Sperm Structure

A

Head, midpiece, flagellum

73
Q

Sperm Midpiece

A

filled with mitochondira to generate ATP to swim to ovum

74
Q

Sperm Head

A

covered by acrosome and contains genetic material

75
Q

Acrosome

A

helps head penetrate ovum

76
Q

Ovaries

A

female gonads that produce estrogen and progestrone

77
Q

Pelvic Cavity

A

where ovaries are kept on follicles

78
Q

Follicles

A

multilayered sacs that contain, nourish and protect ova(eggs)

79
Q

Between puberty and monopause…

A

one egg per month is ovulated into peritoneal sac and then drawn into the fallopian tube where cilia propels the egg along

80
Q

Vaginal canal

A

sperm is donated here during intercourse

81
Q

Uterus

A

from fallopian tubes to uterus for fetal development

82
Q

Vulva

A

external female anatomy

83
Q

Oogenesis

A

production of female gametes

**all oogeneia a woman will ever have are formed during fetal development

84
Q

Primary Oocytes

A

like primary spermatocytes they are 2n and arrested in prphase 1; done by birth

85
Q

Secondary Oocyte

A

during a womans period, one primary oocyte will complete meiosis 1 and produce this and a polar body

arrested at metaphase 2 until fertilization

86
Q

Menarche

A

first menstrual cycle

87
Q

Polar body

A

occurs from unequal cytokenesis where the secondary oocyte has all the cytoplasm and the polar body has minimal

a second is formed after mature ovum is made from Meiosis 2

88
Q

Zona Pellucida

A

layer surrounds the oocyte and made of glycoproteins to protect oocyte and allow sperm to bind

89
Q

Corona Radiata

A

outside of zona pellucida and adhered to oocyte during ovulation

90
Q

Acrosomal Enzymes

A

helps sperm penetrate the layers arround oocyte and trigger mitosis 2

91
Q

Diploid Zygote

A

when sperm (half DNA) and oocyte fuse (literally everything else from DNA, organelles, cytoplasm etc)

92
Q

Prior to puberty for females the hypothalamus….

A

restricts production of GnRH (gonadtropin-releasing hormone)

93
Q

During puberty for females the hypothalamus_ and the anterior pituitary _

A

releases GnRH to stimulate anterior pituitary

releases FSH and LH (follicle stimulating and lutenizin hormone)

94
Q

Males during puberty increase ____ production to allow sperm production

A

testosterone

negatively feedbacks to hypothalamous/AP to limit levles

95
Q

FSH in men

A

stimulater stertoli cells and triggers sperm maturation

96
Q

LH in men

A

causes interstitial cells to produce testosterone

97
Q

Secondary Sexual Characteristics Male

A

caused by testosterones leading to axillary hair, growth, deep voices

98
Q

FSH in women

A

cause estrogens to be secreted from ovaries

99
Q

Estrogen in Females

A

leads to secondary characteristics and maintains demale reproductive system

in embryo it stimulates development of reproductive tract

in adult it thickens lining of the uterus (endometrium)

100
Q

Progesterone

A

secreted by corpus luteum in response to LH; at the end of first trimester of pregnancy it is supplied by the placenta

development and maintenance of endometrium

101
Q

Corpus Luteum

A

remanent follicle left after ovulation

102
Q

Menstrual Cycle

A

growing/shedding of uterus lining from menarche to menopause with cyclic pattern of estrogen and progesterone levels

103
Q
  1. Follicular Phase
A

occurs when menstrual flow begins,

GnRH secretion from hypothalamus increases in response to decreased estrogen/progesterone to increase FSH and LH

they then develop the ovarian follicles, which produce estrogen to inhibit GnRH, FSH and LH and regrow the endometrial lining

104
Q

Menstrual Flow

A

shedding of uterine lining of previous cycle

105
Q
  1. Ovulation
A

Estrogen from follicles induce positive feedback to increase GnRH, LH and FSH

LH surge results to the release of ovum into abdominal cavity

106
Q
  1. Luteal Phase
A

LH causes ruptured follicle to form corps leuteum and secrete progesterone

progesterone and estrogen levels are high to cause negative feedback on GnRH, FSH, LH to prevent ovulation of more eggs

107
Q

4a. Menstruation

A

if implantation doesn’t occur, corpus leuteum loses stimulation from LH, progesterone dies down and uterine lining is shed

decrease in estrogen/progesterone allows for GnRH activation to restart cycle

108
Q

4b. Pregnancy

A

if fertilization occurs, zygote develops into blastocyte and implants in uterine lining

hCG is secreted to maintain the corpus luteum thereby keeping uterine lining as estrogen and progesterone levels are high and inhibit GnRH

in second trimester hCG dies off as placenta has grown to supply its own estrogen/progesterone

109
Q

hCG

A

human chroionic gonadotropin used to help maintain corpus luteum, estrogen and progesterone to keep lining

110
Q

5.Menopause

A

ovarian and endometrium atrophy as FSH and LH don’t stimulate thereby decreases estrogen/progesterone due to age

FSH and LH are high in blood stream because estrogen/progesterone cannot inhibit

111
Q

S E V E N U P

A 
Seminefirous Tubules
Epidymis
vas Deferens
Ejaculatory Duct
Urethra
Penis

Biology (5 decks)

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