7. Memory Flashcards
1
Q
What is encoding?
A
Transforming information into a form that can be entered and retained in the memory system
Process that controls movement from working to long-term memory store
2
Q
What is selective attention and what is it used for?
A
In order for encoding to take place, we need to focus our attention. Selective attention is a tool that allows us to eliminate interference from the relevant information
3
Q
What is storage?
A
Retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time
4
Q
What is consolidation and what is it used for?
A
Consolidation needs to take place in order for storage to take place. Consolidation involves a physiological change that requires the synthesis of molecules.
5
Q
What is retrieval?
A
Recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it
Process that controls flow of information from long-term to working memory store
6
Q
In which processes can memory failure occur?
A
Either encoding, storage and/or decoding
7
Q
Explain the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory
A
Three memory stores that differ in function, capacity and duration (sensory memory, working/short-term memory and long-term memory)
8
Q
What is sensory memory? What is its capacity (visual; auditory)?
A
Temporary storage for sensory information; capacity is large;
Duration:
o Visual: - 0.1 seconds
o Auditory: 2 seconds
9
Q
How is information lost in sensory memory?
A
Information lost through: decay, displacement
10
Q
What is working or short-term memory? What is its capacity?
A
AKA short-term memory
Brief storage for information currently being used; Capacity: about 7 items (range 5-9); duration : less than 30 seconds without rehearsal
11
Q
How is information lost in working memory?
A
information lost through: decay, displacement, interference; when filled to capacity displacement can occur
12
Q
What is working memory?
A
Short-term memory has been suggested to be one component of a broader system of temporary storage structures—known as working memory
Working memory: The memory subsystem with which you work on info to understand it, remember it, or use it to solve a problem or to communicate with someone. (mental workspace that holds incoming info from sensory memory or retrieved from LTM in order to perform some conscious cognitive activity).
13
Q
What is long-term memory and what is its capacity?
A
Permanent or relatively permanent storage; capacity: unlimited; duration: from minutes to a lifetime
14
Q
How is information lost in long-term memory?
A
Info lost through: encoding failure, consolidation failure, interference, motivated forgetting, retrieval failure
15
Q
What is the function of sensory memory?
A
Process for basic physical characteristics
16
Q
What is the capacity of sensory memory?
A
Large; can hold many items at once
17
Q
What is the duration of sensory memory?
A
Very brief retention of images
o 0.3 seconds for visual info
o 2 seconds for auditory info
Auditory sensory memory may last a bit longer than visual sensory memories
18
Q
What are the 2 types of sensory memory?
A
- Iconic memory: visual information (visual sensory memory); brief memory of an image or icon
- Echoic memory: auditory information (auditory sensory memory); brief memory of a sound or echo
19
Q
What important element is needed to transfer information from the sensory memory to the working memory?
A
Attention
20
Q
Who did a study on sensory memory and what were the results?
A
Sperling
Sperling demonstrated that sensory memory holds more information than participants are able to report completely because the visual afterimage fades so quickly. Sperling proved that people could retain 12 items in sensory memory but only long enough to report 4 items in the designated row
21
Q
What is the function of working memory?
A
Conscious processing of information
o Codes information in acoustic form
o Can hold visual images
o Where information is actively worked on
o Can store information in semantic form (meaning)
22
Q
What is the capacity of working memory?
A
Limited (holds 7 +/- items)
23
Q
What is the duration of working memory?
A
Brief storage (about 30 seconds)
24
Q
What is displacement?
A
When STM is filled to capacity displacement can occur, that is, each incoming item pushes out an existing item which is then forgotten.
25
How can you overcome the limitation of the working memory of 7+/- 2 items?
by using techniques such as chunking
26
How can you overcome the duration of the working memory of 30 seconds?
we repeat them to retain (i.e. maintenance rehearsal)
27
What is maintenance rehearsal?
Mental or verbal repetition of information allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
28
What is chunking?
Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information
Expands working memory load
E.g. which is easier to remember? 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6 or 483 792 516
29
What is shallow processing and is it effective to build new memory?
Encoding based on superficial features like sounds of word. Leads to little memory.
30
What is deeper processing and is it effective to build new memory? Name a strategy of deeper processing
Encoding based on the meaning of information. Leads to great memory.
Strategies include elaboration: elaboration relating new information to information already in LTM
31
What is the function of long-term memory?
organizes and stores information
| More passive form of storage than working memory
32
What is the capacity of long-term memory?
Unlimited
33
What is the duration of long-term memory?
Thought by some to be permanent
34
What are the 2 main types of long-term memory?
1. Explicit (declarative) memory
| 2. Implicit (non-declarative) memory
35
What is declarative memory?
Memory with awareness; information can be consciously recollected
- (“knowing what”); memory of facts and events, and refers to those memories that can be consciously recalled (or "declared"). Sometimes called explicit memory, consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved.
- Stores facts, information and personal life events
36
What are the 2 types of declarative memory?
Episodic and semantic memory
37
What is non-declarative memory?
Memory without awareness; memory that affects behaviour but cannot consciously be recalled
- does not require conscious thought. Allows us to do things by rote; previous experiences aid in the performance of a task without explicit and conscious awareness per se
- Consists of motor skills, habits, simple classical conditioning responses
Influences your thoughts or behaviour, but does not enter consciousness
Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses
Examples: Riding a bike, Driving a car, Tying your own shoelace
38
What is episodic information?
Information about events or “episodes” that we have experienced personally
- Mental diary
- Is autobiographical; provides us with a crucial record of our personal experiences
E.g. first day at a new job, the first time you travelled alone
39
What is semantic information?
Information about facts, general knowledge, school work
- Mental dictionary or encyclopedia
- Not tied to personal events
- General facts and definitions about the world
- General knowledge about our world, how to do things
E.g. How many tires on a car? What is a cloud? What color is a banana?
- Does NOT depend on tying the item to your past
40
What are the 3 types of non-declarative memory?
1. Procedural memory
2. Classically conditioned memory
3. Priming
41
What is procedural memory?
Procedural memory (“knowing how”) is the unconscious memory of skills and how to do things, particularly the use of objects or movements of the body, such as tying a shoelace, playing a guitar or riding a bike. These memories are typically acquired through repetition and practice, and are composed of automatic sensorimotor behaviours that are so deeply embedded that we are no longer aware of them. Once learned, these "body memories" allow us to carry out ordinary motor actions more or less automatically.
42
What is priming?
If you have heard something very recently, or many more times than another thing, you are primed to recall it more quickly. Example: If I asked you to name a Canadian city where the first two letters are MO, you would say MONTREAL; some might say MONCTON, depending on your personal connection to the response; Think of tests like the Implicit Association (in-group/out-group biases through snap judgments); PAVLOV
43
What is classically conditioned memory?
Conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli (e.g. phobias, some aspects of prejudice and other attitudes)
44
Name the 3 methods of measuring memory
1. Recall
2. Recognition
3. Relearning
45
What is recall? What is serial recall?
A measure of retention that requires one to remember material without the help of retrieval cues, as in an essay test.
Serial recall = recall in a specific order
46
What is the recognition method of measuring memory?
Recognizing something that is familiar (retrieval cues)
47
What is the relearning method for measuring memory?
(savings method/score)
Retention is expressed as the percentage of time saved when material I relearned compared with the time required to learn the material originally; i.e measuring learning by using the time It takes to relearn forgotten facts
48
What are the 2 main theories for the nature of memory?
```
1. Memory as permanent record
Video recorder analogy
OR
2. Memory as reconstruction
Not exact replica of events
Bartlett: LTM distorts new memories
```
49
What are schemas?
Framework of knowledge and assumptions about people, objects, events.
Affect encoding and information recall.
We distort and ignore.
For example, a young child may first develop a schema for a horse. She knows that a horse is large, has hair, four legs, and a tail. When the little girl encounters a cow for the first time, she might initially call it a horse.
50
What is distortion?
* Alter memory to fit beliefs, expectations, logic, prejudices.
* Positive bias: tend to distort memories in a positive way.
* Need for emotional well-being.
51
What was Loftus' experiment about distortion?
Found that: The estimated speed was affected by the verb used (hit vs smashed). The verb implied information about the speed, which systematically affected the participants’ memory of the accident.
52
Which type of lineup is more accurate in eyewitness testimonies?
Simultaneous lineup more accurate than sequential lineup.
53
What is flashbulb memory?
An unusual memory phenomenon
o Extremely vivid memory
o Conditions when hear news of surprising, shocking, emotional event
o May seem very vivid and specific, but they are not more accurate than ordinary memories
54
What is eidetic imagery?
An unusual memory phenomenon
| o Retaining image of visual stimulus for several minutes after out of view
55
What are the 6 measures of retrieval?
1. Recall
2. Cued recall
3. Recognition
4. Serial position effect
5. Primary effect
6. Recency effect
56
What is recall?
Test of LTM that involves retrieving memories without cues, also termed free recall
57
What is cued recall?
Test of LTM that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue
58
What is recognition?
Test of LTM that involves identifying correct information from a series of possible choices
59
What is the serial position effect?
Tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle
60
What is primary effect?
Information a beginning of sequence recalled as already placed in LTM
61
What is recency effect?
End of sequence higher recall probability because still in STM
62
What happens when the conditions of retrieval are similar to conditions of encoding?
Retrieval is more likely to be successful
63
What are context effects?
Environmental cues to recall
64
What is state dependant retrieval?
Physical, internal factors (e.g. anxiety)
| Alcohol, drugs, mood affect memory.
65
What is mood congruence?
Factors related to mood or emotions
66
What is context dependant memory and how was it demonstrated in studies?
Godden and Baddeley showed the influence of environmental context on recall. Scuba divers who memorized a list of words either on land or underwater, has significantly better recall in the same physical context in which the learning had taken place
67
What are the 5 brain structures involved in memory?
```
Frontal lobes (episodic memory)
Amygdala (emotional memories)
Temporal lobes (explicit memory, priming)
Hippocampus (explicit memory, priming)
Cerebellum (implicit memory)
```
68
What is the area of the brain most involved in the processing of long-term memory?
Hippocampus
69
Explain the case of Mr. HM. What was removed in his operation? what happened to his memory?
Operation to control seizures; took out the medial portions of both temporal lobes—the amygdala and the hippocampal region, which includes the hippocampus itself and the underlying cortical areas. Though his short-term memory was still as good as ever and he easily remembered the events of his life stored well before the operation, H. M. suffered from anterograde amnesia. He was not able to remember a single event that occurred from the surgery to 56 years later, when he died in 2008. As far as his conscious long-term memory was concerned, it was still 1953 and he was still 27 years old. He could not translate memory from working memory/STM into long term memory
70
What types of memory could Mr HM not form? What memories could be formed?
After the surgery, H.M. could still form new procedural memories (“remembered how to do the mirror star test) but long-lasting declarative memories could no longer be formed (PSYCHOLOGY’S MOST IMPORTANT BRAIN)
71
What is the role of the hippocampus in the storage of memories?
Hippocampus = explicit (episodic and semantic memory) memory formation (STM --> LTM)
Active during slow-wave sleep
72
What is the role of the cerebellum and amygdalla in the storage of memories?
Implicit formation (emotional memories…) (STM --> LTM)
73
Explain the case of KC
K. C., a Toronto resident who sustained a severe head injury from a motorcycle accident, suffered massive damage to his left frontal lobe and other parts of the brain. K.C.’s case is remarkable in that he cannot remember, in the sense of bringing back to conscious awareness, a single thing that he has ever done or experienced. He cannot remember himself experiencing situations and participating in life’s events.
74
Which type of memory was impacted in KC's case? Which types were not?
His episodic memory was erased.
K. C.’s semantic memory was largely spared. His storehouse of knowledge from fields such as geography, history, politics, and music are still large, enabling him to answer questions about many topics. Most research supports the hypothesis that the hippocampus is especially important in forming episodic memories. Semantic memory, however, depends not only on the hippocampus, but also on the other parts of the hippocampal region. Once stored, memories can be retrieved without the involvement of the hippocampus. Consequently, many researchers argue that neurological underpinnings of episodic and semantic memories are entirely separate
75
What is long-term potentiation?
To potentiate means to make potent or to strengthen. Long-term potentiation is a long-lasting increase in the efficiency of neural transmission at the synapses.
Long-term potentiation is important because it may be the basis for learning and memory at the level of the neurons. Long-term potentiation does not take place unless BOTH THE PRESYNAPTIC AND POSTSYNAPTIC NEURONS ARE ACTIVATED AT THE SAME TIME BY HIGH-FREQUENCY STIMULATION. Also, the postsynaptic neuron must be depolarized (ready to fire) when stimulation arrives, or long-term potentiation will not occur. Increased neural activity at very fast frequencies (20–70 cycles per second) occurs at the synapses when learning and memory tasks are performed. Long term potentiation is a common occurrence in the hippocampus, which is essential in the formation of declarative memories. Much of the research on long-term potentiation has been conducted in various areas of the hippocampus
76
Which hormone improves working memory? How?
Estrogen
Appears to exert this effect by helping to build and maintain synapses between neurons in brain areas known to be involved in memory, such as the hippocampal region
77
What hormone can interfere with memory when in excess?
Cortisol (e.g. in adrenal gland disease)
78
Why are strong and long-lasting memory those that are fuelled by emotion?
When a person is emotionally aroused, the adrenal glands release the hormones epinephrine (adrenalin) and norepinephrine (noradrenalin) into the bloodstream. Long known to be involved in the fight-or-flight response, these hormones enable humans to survive, and they also imprint powerful and enduring memories of the circumstances surrounding threatening situations. Such emotionally laden memories activate the amygdala (known to play a central role in emotion) and other parts of memory.
79
Who is the one who studied forgetting?
Hermann Ebbinghaus
80
What did Ebbinghaus did to study forgetting?
First experimental studies on human memory
Nonsense syllables = consonant vowel consonant combinations. He made 2300 of them and split them into lists that he repeated over and over again. He did so until he was able to repeat the list twice from memory without forgetting as single one, what he called mastery. He recorded the amount of time and learning trials it too him to reach this.
He was his only subject. He followed a metronome to repeat the list at the speed of about 2.5 nonsense syllable per second. Did this in the same context and time every day.
After periods of time passed and he forget, he recorded how long it took to relearn the list again to mastery. He then compared that relearning time to the original time and calculated a percentage of time saved score – this score represented (for him) the amount of learning that had gone on in his mind > percentage, greater learning acquired.
So this famous forgetting curve shows that forgetting happens very quickly but eventually tapers off. Forgetting happens quickly in short spaces of time, but the rate of forgetting is lessened over longer periods of time.
81
Name 8 causes of forgetting
1. Encoding failure
2. Interference theories
3. Decay
4. Consolidation failure
5. Motivated forgetting
6. Retrieval failure
7. Prospective forgetting
8- Amnesia
82
What is encoding failure?
Material not put in LTM
Information never entered our long term memory in the first place. Unless you actively try to encode a lot of things in your environment, chances are you don’t know exact details of things you see thousands of times a day. End of textbook questions check for encoding failure.
Even though you’ve seen thousands of pennies, you’ve probably never looked at one closely to encode specific features
83
What are interference theories?
Old (proactive) or new (retroactive) information interferes with learning or recall
“memories interfering with memories”
Forgetting NOT caused my mere passage of time
Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory
2 types: proactive and retroactive interference
84
What is proactive interference?
A type of interference
- When OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information
- when information already learned interferes with the learning of new information (ex: calling your new bf by the wrong name, writing a cheque in January with the wrong year). You may feel uncomfortable with new things, called negative transfer (new car v old car not as comfortable)
E.g. memories of where you parked your car on campus last week interferes with ability to find car today
- Usually temporary (you remember eventually)
85
What is retroactive interference?
- when new information interferes with remembering old info. This especially happens when the information is very similar. Retroactive interference only temporary (new material may hinder remembering old material, but over time old material will persist).
E.g. when new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number
E.g. learning new language interferes with ability to remember old language
86
What is decay?
Unused memories fade away or disappear with TIME (time plays a critical role)
Ability to retrieve information declines with time after original encoding
Decay is the understanding that unused memories disappear over time. People believe this is a physiological phenomenon as neural trace may decay over time if they are not used. However, psychologists accept decay theories mostly for sensory and short term memory, not LTM. Study showed HS grads can recognize pictures of ppl 35 yrs later with 90% accuracy, similar to recent graduates.
87
What is consolidation?
Consolidation: process by which memory is encoded into LTM. Disruption in this means a memory is not formed. Ex: anything that makes you lose consciousness.
88
What is consolidation failure?
Disruption in consolidation process preventing permanent memory forming
89
How is called memory loss of experiences just before losing consciousness?
retrograde amnesia.
90
What is motivated forgetting? What are the 3 types of motivated forgetting?
o Protect oneself from painful, frightening, unpleasant memories
o Undesired memory is held back from awareness
o Forgetting through suppression, repression, amnesia
91
What is suppression?
A person uses suppression to actively put a painful memory out of mind, but is still aware the event happened. (Conscious forgetting)
92
What is repression?
Repression, on the other hand, is when the memory is REMOVED from consciousness, and the person is no longer aware it had happened. A very Freudian like concept. (Unconscious forgetting)
93
What is amnesia?
People with amnesia (memory loss) not due to loss of consciousness have actually repressed the memory.
94
What is retrieval failure?
Inability to locate information
Often we’re certain we know something (like in a test, or forgetting a name of an acquaintance) but we just can’t get it --> this is retrieval failure
Cannot retrieve LTM information
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Tulving (famous researcher in memory) thought this was because we could not locate the information in our memory. He found that subjects can retrieve memories when they are provided with a cue to jog their memories, like how an odors can be a powerful reminder of past experiences (a certain drink example).
95
What did Tulving find in his research?
He found that subjects can retrieve memories when they are provided with a cue to jog their memories, like how an odors can be a powerful reminder of past experiences (a certain drink example). --> overpasses retrieval failure
96
What is prospective forgetting?
Forgetting to carry out action in the future
Most of the time, however, we’re pretty good at remembering things like names, people, addresses, etc. A study showed that we’re actually pretty bad at remembering to do things in the future, like pay bills, water plants, message someone happy birthday on facebook.
97
What is amnesia? Name the 2 types of amnesia and explain them.
Severe memory loss
o Retrograde amnesia: inability to remember past episodic information; common after head injury; need for consolidation
o Anterograde amnesia: Inability to form new memories, related to hippocampus damage
98
Name 4 ways to improve memory.
1. Organization: Use categories or mnemonics
2. Overlearning: practice or study beyond where repeated once without error
3. Spaced vs massed practice: spacing studying effective (not last minute) - prevents against interference
4. Active learning vs. rereading: Active is best, connect new information to present knowledge
99
Name 3 mnemonic methods
The first-letter technique
– Take the first letter of each item and form a word, phrase, or sentence to remember them.
The method of Loci
– Place pieces of information in different locations of an area in your mind. Then take an imaginary walk through that location to help you recall the pieces of information placed there
The keyword method
– This is particularly used when you want to learn a new language. Learning homonyms in different languages. (e.g. "duck in a can" for canard)
Make an image with the sound-alike picture and the picture of the real word you are trying to learn
