Health status Flashcards
Confirm physical health status
Anatomy:
The study of body structures and the relationships between these structures.
When we look at body parts that can be seen without a microscope, such as an arm or a stomach the term gross anatomy is used.
This is in contrast to use of the term microscopic anatomy when a microscope is needed to observe body structures such as cells.
Physiology:
The study of the functions of the body, that is, how the body parts work.
6 main levels of structural organisation in the human body:
Chemical:
Atoms are the smallest building blocks, that combine to form molecules.
Cellular:
Trillions of microscopic units known as cells are in constant motion in the body.
Tissue:
Tissues are similar types of cells with a common function that are grouped together.
Organ:
Structure composed of at least two different tissue types that perform a specific body function.
Organ System:
Groups of organs that work in unison to perform a common function.
Organism:
The combination of all the parts of the structure, working together to keep us alive.
Eight essential functions for maintaining human life:
Response to stimuli Movement Growth Maintaining boundaries Reproduction Digestion Metabolism Excretion
Eight essential functions explained:
Response to stimuli:
react to changes in the environment. Flinch from pain; increased respiratory rate when CO2 in blood is high.
Movement:
musculoskeletal system movement; and blood/foodstuffs/urine etc movement.
Growth:
increase in size, usually by increasing number of cells. Cell-constructing activities must occur at faster rate than cell-destroying activities. Largely directed by endocrine system.
Maintaining boundaries:
Must be able to keep “inside” distinct from “outside”. Every cell has a membrane; the human organism has the integumentary system.
Reproduction:
Cellular reproduction by cellular division. Organism reproduction by reproductive system/s
Digestion:
Breaking down food into simple molecules to be absorbed by the blood.
Metabolism:
All chemical reactions within body cells.
Breaking complex substances into simpler building blocks; making larger structures from smaller ones; using nutrients and oxygen to produce other molecules.
Depends on digestive and respiratory systems for production and cardiovascular system for distribution. Regulated by endocrine system.
Excretion:
Removing wastes from the body.
Essential of human naatomy & physiology eleventh edition
Three important parts that make up any homeostatic control mechanism:
Sensory receptor:
Senses and responses to changes in the environment, such as extreme heat and cold.
Control Centre:
Receive the information, analyzes it, and decides on the appropriate response (such as shivering or sweating).
Effector:
Relays the response to the correct part of the body so that homeostasis can be maintained. This response is implemented by muscles or glands.
Negative feedback loops:
Positive feedback loops:
aim to stay/move close to setpoint. (temperature regulation, both high and low temps)
amplification (fruit ripening chemicals spread; childbirth -> pressure of baby’s head on cervix causes contractions which increase pressure etc.)
Positive feedback loops = faster change
What negative feedback mechanisms ensure that blood glucose is returned to normal levels after a sugary meal?
high = insulin secreted by pancreas triggers cells to store glucose and liver to store glucose as glycogen.
low = pancreas produces glucagon. converts glycogen from liver to glucose
brachial: dorsal: cephalic: a- : afebrile:
arm back head without without fever
Alternate names for planes:
Frontal:
Median:
Transverse:
Rostal: Caudal: Ipsilateral Contralateral Axial Intermediate
Coronal
Sagittal
Cross section
towards face/nose/beak
towards tail/tailbone
on the same side of the body (eg, both left limbs)
opposite sides of the body (eg, both arms)
around central axis (eg skeleton)
between two structures (heart intermediate to lungs)
Anatomical position:
Palms forward, thumbs up
Arms by side
Feet slightly apart
Divisions of the two body cavities:
Dorsal cavity divisions:
Cranial cavity and the Spinal/Vertebral cavity.
cranial cavity contains the brain and pituitary gland
spinal/vertebral cavity contains spinal cord and nerves.
Ventral cavity divisions:
Thoracic cavity, Abdominal cavity and Pelvic cavity (abdominopelvic)
The thoracic cavity is situated in the upper part of the trunk. Its boundaries are formed by a bony framework and supporting muscles. The main organs and structures are the trachea, bronchi, lungs, the heart, aorta, superior and inferior vena cava, the oesophagus, lymph nodes and the nerves.
The abdominal cavity is the largest cavity in the body and contains the stomach, small intestine and most of the large intestine, the liver, gall bladder, bile ducts, pancreas, spleen and two kidneys. Most of the abdominal cavity is occupied by the organs and glands of the digestive system. There are other structures such as the adrenal glands and numerous blood vessels and lymph vessels, nerves and lymph nodes that are found in the abdominal cavity.
The pelvic cavity extends from the lower end of the abdominal cavity and contains the sigmoid colon, rectum, anus, some loops of the small intestine, urinary bladder, lower parts of the ureters and the urethra, and in the female, and the organs of the reproductive system.
Four quadrants and nine regions of Abdominopelvic cavity:
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
Left hypochondriac region Epigastric region Right hypochondriac region Right lumbar region Umbilical region Left lumbar region Left iliac region Hypogastric region Right iliac region
How many cells in an adult body?
around 100 trillion cells, each of which have a very specific role to play.
Three main parts of a cell:
Nucleus
Cytoplasm (jelly-like fluid)
Plasma membrane (or cell membrane)
How many cells fit on the head of a pin?
around 10 000
Two categories of cells:
Eukaryotic cells:
have organelles (including nucleus) enclosed in a membrane.
more advanced, complex cells (in plants and animals)
plant cells have cell walls, animal cells don’t.
Prokaryotic cells:
No nucleus or other organelles
have genetic material, but contained in nucleus
Single-celled organisms only. (bacteria etc)
Organelles are:
organelle = “little organ”
specialised parts of the cell with unique “jobs” to perform.
Nucleus contains DNA (instructions for what cell does and how)
Chromatin = tangled, spread-out form of DNA. found inside nuclear membrane
Nucleolus produces Ribosomes, which create proteins.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: rough ER = ribosomes attached. smooth ER = no ribosomes attached.
Vesicles carry proteins etc from ER to Golgi apparatus.
Golgi body “folds” proteins into forms the body can use, and/or adds (lipids, carbs) to them.
Vacuoles: sack-like structures for storing materials.
Lysosomes (animals only) contain enzymes to break down cellular debri.
Mitochondrian = powerhouse. energy created through “cellular respiration”
Cytoskeleton maintains cell’s shape. Include microfilaments (made of protein) and microtubules.
Cell specialisation:
There are many types of cell specialisation in the human body, some common specialised cells include surface skin cells, bone cells, muscle cells (including cardiac, skeletal and smooth), neurons and epithelial cells.
(3 steps) Cellular respiration:
Glycolysis breaks down a 6carbon glucose molecule into 2x 3carbon pyruvic acid molecules. gives a net gain of 2 ATP molecules (body uses these as cellular energy). High energy electrons are released.
Each 3carbon pyruvic acid molecule enters the mitochondria as part of the “citric acid cycle”. 2 more ATP are created and carbon dioxide is released as a waste product. more high energy electrons released.
High energy electrons are used in the “electron transport chain”, located in mitochondrial membrane. This phase creates most of ATP. Previously-released electrons interact with a series of enzymes that store the energy from electrons in ATP molecules.
These three steps can produce up to 38 ATP molecules from one glucose molecule
Plasma Membrane:
A see-through ‘skin’ or barrier that separates the cell contents from everything outside the cell (holds the cell contents together)
However, the plasma membrane (or cell membrane) also has important functions to perform related to allowing substances to get into and out of the cells - a process known as membrane transport.
Only small and uncharged particles can cross. Large or charged ones can’t.
Diffusion:
the spread of particles from regions of higher concentration, to regions of lower concentration.
“Osmolarity” refers to concentration of particles per litre
Osmosis:
movement of water molecules across a membrane from lower to higher solute concentration. This equalises the concentration on either side of the barrier/membrane.
“Osmotic pressure” = pressure caused by water crossing membrane.
Tonicity:
The measure of the osmotic pressure gradient across a cell membrane.
Isotonic solution = one that gives same pressure inside and outside the cells. ie, a solution with equal osmolarity to cell contents. hypotonic (lower osmolarity than cell) solution can cause so much water to move into cells that they rupture
The study of tissues is known as:
Histology,
There are four primary tissues in the body:
Connective, epithelial, nervous, and muscle tissues.
Connective tissue:
Supports, connects, or separates different types of tissues and organs in the body. Connective tissue typically has cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix of fibrous proteins and glycoproteins attached to a basement membrane
Epithelial tissue:
Covers the whole surface of the body. It is made up of cells closely packed and ranged in one or more layers. This tissue is specialised to form the covering or lining of all internal and external body surfaces. Also lines inner surfaces such as digestive & respiratory system lining etc.
Nervous tissue:
Makes up the different parts of our nervous system. The nervous tissue allows us to receive stimuli and process the information
Muscle tissue:
a soft tissue that composes muscles. There are three types of muscle tissue, these are cardiac, smooth and skeletal.
Wound healing:
Platelets from torn blood vessels work to form a mesh-like clot that prevents blood loss.
Inflammation occurs as tissue repair begins.
Mast cells release histamine that dilates blood vessels and increases blood flow to the repair site.
White blood cells (neutrophyls) and macrophages work to consume bacteria and remove damaged tissue/debris.
Fibroblasts build new tissue by secreting collagen that takes the shape of the original tissue.
During remodelling (the final phase) the tissue matures and regains its original function.
The adult human skeleton is made up of:
206 bones
These are living connective tissues, which is one of the four main types of tissue in the body, which require oxygen and nutrients, and the disposal of waste products in order to remain alive and functional.
Two subdivisions of the skeleton:
Axial skeleton (axis) Appendicular skeleton (appended to axial skeleton)
articular process:
condyle:
neck:
articulation:
A projection that contacts an adjacent bone.
A large, rounded articular process.
The region of bone between the head and the shaft.
The region where adjacent bones contact each other—a joint.
crest:
eminence:
canal:
A prominent ridge.
A relatively small projection or bump.
A long, tunnel-like foramen, usually a passage for notable nerves or blood vessels.
epicondyle:
facet:
line:
A projection near to a condyle but not part of the joint.
A small, flattened articular surface.
A long, thin projection, often with a rough surface. Also known as a ridge.
foramen:
fossa:
malleolus:
An opening through a bone.
A broad, shallow depressed area.
One of two specific protuberances of bones in the ankle.
fovea:
labyrinth:
tubercle:
A small pit on the head of a bone.
A cavity within a bone.
A projection or bump with a roughened surface, generally smaller than a tuberosity.
meatus:
process:
diaphysis:
A short canal.
A relatively large projection or prominent bump.(gen.)
The long, relatively straight main body of a long bone; region of primary ossification. Also known as the shaft.
ramus:
sinus:
epiphysis:
An arm-like branch off the body of a bone.
A cavity within a cranial bone.
The end regions of a long bone; regions of secondary ossification.
spine:
suture:
epiphyseal plate:
A relatively long, thin projection or bump.
Articulation between cranial bones.
Also known as the growth plate or physis. In a long bone it is a thin disc of hyaline cartilage that is positioned transversely between the epiphysis and metaphysis. In the long bones of humans, the epiphyseal plate disappears by twenty years of age.
trochanter:
tuberosity:
head:
metaphysis:
One of two specific tuberosities located on the femur.
A projection or bump with a roughened surface.
The proximal articular end of the bone.
The region of a long bone lying between the epiphysis and diaphysis.
The axial skeleton:
Consists of 80 bones and is composed of six parts.
Face and skull bones,
Fossicles of the middle ear
Hyoid bone
Rib cage
Sternum
Vertebral column.
(the head and trunk of a vertebrate; or the bones of vertebrae, sacrum, ribs, and sternum)
The axial skeleton together with the appendicular skeleton forms the complete skeleton.
fontanelles:
“soft spots” on baby’s skull
Fibrous, non-ossified connections that join the bones of the cranium to allow for the slight compression needed during vaginal delivery
Number of bones in the spine:
26:
7 cervical 12 thoracic 5 lumbar: sacrum coccyx
intervertebral disks between each (bar sacrum and coccyx)
rib cage:
also known as thoracic cage or bony thorax.
Twelve pairs of ribs form the walls of the bony thorax. All ribs articulate posteriorly with the thoracic vertebrae.
The “true ribs” (pairs 1-7) attach to the sternum via costal cartilages. Anatomically called vertebrosternal ribs
The false ribs are pairs 8-12. Anatomically called vertebrocondral ribs. Pairs 8-10 attach to the costal cartilage of rib 7 rather than the sternum. This section of cartilage together is called the Costal Margin.
The floating ribs (pairs 11 & 12) are also false ribs, but have no anterior attachment with the sternum. They are anatomically called vertebral ribs.
“slipped disc” is correctly called:
three possible causes:
herniated disc.
Possible causes:
Drying of the discs, weakening of the ligaments of the vertebral column, and twisting forces.
Appendicular skeleton:
Bones come in all shapes and sizes, depending on where they are in the body and what they have to do. Bones are sometimes described according to their shape, for example:
Long Bone (humerous)
Flat Bone (sternum)
Short Bone (talus)
Irregular Bone (vertebra)Parietal bone: Temporal Bone : Frontal Bone : Occipital Bone: Mandible: Maxilla: Clavicle: Scapula: Sternum: (12 pairs of) Ribs: Cervicle vertebrae: Thoracic vertebrae: Lumbaar vertebrae: Sacrum: Coccyx: Humerus: Radius: Ulna: Carpals: Metacarpals: Phalanges: Pelvic girdle: Femur: Patella: Tibia: Fibula: Tarsals: Metatarsals:
top of skull at temples front of skull back of skull lower jaw maxillary bone is lower front of face (down to top jaw) runs from shoulder to sternum shoulder blades (manubrium, body and xiphoid process) frontal rib join. 7true (to spine) 5false ribs (3to costal cartilage, 2floating) neck. C1-C7 chest. T1-T12 back (from below ribs) L1-L5 five vertebrae fused together (S1-S5) sits above coccyx. tailbone. Three tiny vertebrae fused together superior arm bone. lateral inferior arm bone (thumb side) medial inferior arm bone (pinky side) wrist bones central hand bones (through palm) fingers and toes hips etc superior leg bone. largest in body kneecap medial leg bone lateral leg bone ankle bones foot bones (between ankle and toes)
Five major functions that bones perform:
support
protection
movement
storage of minerals and fats
formation of blood cells.The largest bone in the human adult:
Bone can also be called:
Two different types of bones:
The femur.
Osseous tissue.
Compact bone is dense and found mostly on the shaft of long bones. Spongy bone looks like a sponge with many open spaces.
Anatomy of Bone:
compact bone tissue along the long shaft and spongy bone towards the end of the bone at the joint which is capped in cartilage. The medullary cavity within the bone shaft is filled with bone marrow, which in turn is wrapped in the endosteum and then again by the periosteum. Nutrient vessels perforate the periosteum and the endostium and connect with the periosteum by way of the nutrient foramen.
Three types of cells that contribute to bone homeostasis:
osteoblasts (cells that form new bone),
osteoclasts (cells that break down the bone)
osteocytes (mature bone cells).
Osteon:
is a unit (small [cylindrical?] segment) of compact bone.
Comprised of:
Blood vessel, lymph vessel and nerve run down osteonic canal through centre;
Outside this is the matrix (osteocytes housed in lacunii) surrounded by caneliculii (network of canals that allow osteocytes to “communicate” with one another. Matrix contains osteocytes (that mature bone cells) through the centre, and osteoblasts (cells that form new bone) and osteoclasts (cells that break down damaged/old bone) towards the circumference.
Outside surface of osteon is lined with collagen.
If too much bone is broken down, not enough new bone is being formed, or the quality of the new bone is poor, it can contribute to the development of osteoporosis, particularly in older people
Osteoporosis:
Prevention of osteoporosis is multifaceted, however poor intake of dietary calcium and Vitamin D can play a very significant part in the development of this condition, and so an appropriate intake of these nutrients should be present in the diets of all older clients.
The structure of fragile osteoporotic bone being much less dense than normal bone tissue will mean it is important to take extra care to avoid falls in older clients who may be osteoporotic. Even a minor trip or stumble can cause a fracture in an osteoporotic patient, and an older person’s bone is likely to take longer to heal than a younger person’s bone.
Four types of fracture:
Greenstick fracture - the bone is only partially broken;
Simple fracture - the bone is neatly broken across entirely;
Open fracture - the bone is broken across entirely and displaced away from the separated half, puncturing skin;
Comminuted fracture - the bone is broken across entirely in several places.
Fracture, break, and crack all mean the same thing. One term is not more serious than another.
The description of the fracture also includes the direction it takes within the bones:
Transverse: the fracture travels across the bone;
Oblique: the fracture occurs at an angle;
Spiral: –the fracture spirals or extends down the length of the bone;
Comminuted: the fracture has more than two parts, multiple fragments are present.
Some medications commonly used to treat bone conditions include:
Bisphosphonates: slow down bone breakdown and is used to treat osteoporosis for example, Alendronate.
Hormone replacement therapy (HRT): These medications contain the hormone oestrogen and sometimes also progesterone. This therapy can reduce the risk of osteoporosis in women who have undergone menopause.
Calcium: Supplements may be recommended if it is not possible to obtain sufficient levels of calcium in the diet.
Synovial membrane:
A layer of connective tissue that lines the cavities of joints, tendon sheaths, and bursae and makes synovial fluid, which has a lubricating function.
Synovial fluid:
Yolk-like fluid found in the cavities of synovial joints which reduces friction between the articular cartilage of synovial joints during movement.
Joint Capsule:
The sac of dense fibrous tissue that surrounds the joint like a sleeve.
Synarthroses:
Amphiarthroses:
Diarthroses:
joints that do not allow any movement;
joints that allow a small/slight movement to happen;
freely moveable joints.
Three muscle types and their descriptions:
Skeletal muscle cells such as those of the deltoid muscle in the upper arm, are single, very long, cylindrical, cells with many nuclei, and they have a striped, or in medical terminology ‘striated’, appearance. They are known as ‘voluntary’ because you can choose to use them whenever you want.
Cardiac muscle cells are found in the walls of the heart and look totally different to skeletal muscle cells. Although they are striated, they are branching chains of cells that are joined together with intercalated discs to allow the spread of electrical impulses through the heart. They are involuntary muscles.
Smooth muscle cells are found in the walls of body organs such as the stomach and intestines, they are involuntary long narrow cells with one nucleus and no striations. They contract very slowly.
5 major properties of muscle system:
The muscular system is:
1) Excitable/irritable (capable of receiving and responding to stimulation from nerves.
2) Contractable (able to shorten upon stimulation)
3) Extensible (can be stretched without damage)
4) Elastic. (has elasticity = able to return to original length and shape after contraction/extension)
5) Adaptable (can be changed in response to how it is used. ie, hypertrophy = enlargement of muscle with increased work; atrophy = wasting away if not used.)
5 types of muscle movements:
Adduction: moving limb toward midline;
Abduction: moving limb away from midline;
Flexion: joint bends to decrease angle between two body parts;
Extension: straightening/extending joint to increase angle between two body parts
Rotation: moving a body part around an axis
tendon: fascia: Sarcolemma : Myofibrils : Sarcomeres : Actin : Aponeurosis :
connects muscle to bone
connects muscle to muscle
specific name for plasma membrane in muscle cells
muscle fibres = ribbon-like organelles.
contractile units chained together, to make myofibrils.
contractile protein in thin myofilaments of sarcomeres.
sheet-like connective tissue, attaches indirectly to bone, cartilage or connective tissue covering.
“essentials of human anatomy and physiology” textbk
Action potential. :
Multinucleate :
Electrical current (by nerve impulses)to contract muscle When mitosis (cell division) occurs without the cytoplasm dividing, it can result in multiple nucleii. common in liver.
“essentials of human anatomy and physiology” textbk
Three types of Range of Motion exercises:
Passive range of motion exercise (PROME):
the physiotherapist will move your limb along the joint range. This is often performed on patients who are unable to move their limb.
Active-assistive range of motion exercise (AAROME):
done on clients who are able to move their limb but needs assistance from the physiotherapist to complete the joint range. Sometimes, pain may limit the patient’s ability to actively complete the motion. The physiotherapist may assist the patient to complete the movement or just beyond the point of pain. The pain should not persist or worsen when motion is stopped.
In this type of ROM exercise, there is minimal assistance from the physiotherapist.
Active range of motion exercise (AROME):
Client performs the movement without physical assistance from the therapist. The physiotherapist may still verbally instruct the client on the proper execution of the exercise.
Other physiotherapy exercises (besides ROM):
Strengthening exercises:
Usually done on weakened muscles. It may also be done as part of the client’s general conditioning exercise program. Having normal muscle strength help prevent future injury.
When muscles are not moved for a while due to injury or immobilization (cast or brace), the muscles tend to get weak. Often, progressive strengthening exercises are included in the rehabilitation program. May start performing exercises with resistance bands then progress to weights as strength improves.
General conditioning exercises: Involve a combination of exercises including range of motion, strengthening, and walking exercises to help maintain or improve your Cardiopulmonary fitness; Muscle and joint flexibility; and Muscle strength.
Balance exercises:
For clients with balance problems. Strengthening major muscles are important for balance rehab program.
Depending on specific needs and level of fitness, client may start from where most stable.
Example: can sit without support, so may suggest that balance exercises are done using parallel bars. Once able to do them easily, start doing them without bars.
Five common muscular disorders:
Cramps:
An uncontrollable painful muscle spasm which can occur in any muscle but commonly occurs in the muscles of the calf and foot. Causes can include tight muscles, poor muscle tone, an imbalance in electrolytes or injury.
Muscular dystrophy:
Nine types. All are genetic diseases that lead to progressive weakness and irreversible muscle wasting.
ALS (MND):
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
A disease of parts of the nervous system that control voluntary muscle movement (motor neurones). ALS usually occurs in middle age and causes weak and soft or tight and stiff muscles. As ALS progresses some muscles may become paralysed while others are unaffected although in late stage ALS most voluntary muscles are paralysed.
Myasthenia gravis:
This is an autoimmune disease that causes muscle weakness due to problems with the transmission of signals form the nerves to the muscles. This results in weak muscles that get tired quickly and which improve after rest. Symptoms start with eyes, face, and mouth (chewing/swallowing) and spread down.
Myositis:
Autoimmune; inflammation of the muscle tissue. This term usually relates to chronic forms of this condition which include:
Dermatomyositis
Polymyositis
Inclusion Body Myositis
Juvenile Myositis
Eversion:
Inversion:
rotating of ankle so sole of foot points outwards
rotating ankle so sole of foot points inwards
pH of blood:
slightly alkaline; between 7.35 and 7.45
Normal blood volume of adults:
5-6 litres in males and 4-5 litres in females.
Accounts for approximately 8% of total body weight.
Blood “recipe”:
55% plasma
45% red blood cells
<1% white blood cells and platelets
red blood cells + white blood cells + platelets
= “formed elements”. 99.9% red blood cells.
White blood cells: Neutrophils 50-70% Lymphocytes 20-30% Monocytes 2-8% Eosinophils 2-4% Basophils <1%
Red blood cell contents:
These cells have very few organelles and no nucleus (anucleate) and so they are essentially bags of haemoglobin, with more than 250 million haemoglobin molecules in a single cell.
Every single one of these 250 million haemoglobin molecules has the ability to carry 4 molecules of oxygen, so a single red blood cell can potentially carry 1000 million molecules of oxygen!
In a normal, healthy adult, there are approximately 4 - 6 million Red blood cells (RBC) per square millimetre.
White blood cell content:
Neutrophils are the most common leukocyte. They are active phagocytes that are found at sites of acute infection
Lymphocytes represent the true immune system - they are comprised of B cells, producing antibodies and T cells that fight off viruses via direct cellular attack
Monocytes are large cells. They are active phagocytes that become macrophages - a long term ‘clean up’ cell that is common during chronic infections
Eosinophils fight off parasitic invaders, such as worms
Basophils are found at sites of inflammation; they release histamines and contain an anticoagulant, heparin
Platelets are:
not true ‘cells’, but irregular ‘pieces’ or fragments of large cells known as megakaryocytes. Platelets are anucleate (do not have a nucleus), but they play a very important role in the blood clotting process.
Haematopoiesis:
blood cell formation. Process differs, depending on the type of blood cell being formed.
All blood cells arise from a common stem cell, known as a haemocytoblast, found in the red bone marrow. The haemocytoblast differentiates into either lymphoid stem cells, which eventually form lymphocytes, or myeloid stem cells, which form all other types of blood cells.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) are formed when the kidneys register decreasing levels of oxygen-carrying capacity in the blood. This stimulates the kidneys to release a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which stimulates the bone marrow to produce erythrocytes. This is a process known as erythropoiesis. During your career you may be involved in administering EPO intravenously to patients who lack this hormone so it’s important to know what it is.
Red bone marrow is also responsible for the production of White blood cells and platelets, the formation of which is stimulated by hormones in response to environmental signals such as bacteria and toxins.
Three layers of blood vessel walls:
Tunica externa:
protects, reinforces and anchors the vessel to surrounding structures.
Tunica media:
controls vasoconstriction and vasodilation of the vessel.
Tunica interna:
reduces friction between the vessel walls and blood.
Ischaemic stroke: Coronary artery disease: Myocardial infarction: Aortic stenosis: Congenitive heart failure:
Blood clot or artery rupture in the brain.
Coronary artery narrowed by plaque = less O2 to heart
Heart attack. muscle death/weakness due to CAD^
Calcified aortic valve wont open fully; less blood flows.
Weakened heart muscle leads to tachycardia, fluid in lungs, thickened heart wall and swelling of lower limbs.
Peripheral Vascular disease:
Atherosclerosis:
Aortic aneurysm:
Pulmonary embolism:
lower limb artery narrowed by plaque. injure nerves etc
Cholesterol on inner artery wall=atherosclerotic plaque.
Weakened aortic artery in abdomen.bulges,can rupture
Part of DVT clot breaks and travels to pulmonary artery, cutting O2 supply to part of lungs
Skin excretes:
uric acid and urea via sweat
Skin-colour-related conditions:
Colour: Blue
Condition: Cyanosis
Cause: Poor circulation or lack of oxygen in the blood
Colour: Yellow
Condition: Jaundice
Cause: Elevated levels of bilirubin in the Blood
Colour: Black
Condition: Necrosis
Cause: Dead tissue due to injury, radiation or chemicals (e.g. toxins, bacteria and venom).
Two types of body membranes:
Epithelial membranes line the body cavities and body organs, and form the skin on the outer body surface
Connective tissue membranes
Five types of epithelial tissues:
Cuboidal: cube-shaped, specialised for secretion (eg kidney tubules, many glands)
Simple columnar: large brick-shaped. found where secretion/absorption is important (eg intestines)
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar: single layer of varied height (makes it look multilayered) (eg mucuous membrane of respiratory tract)
Stratified squamous: multilayered, constant regeneration. (eg skin and mouth lining)
Simple squamous: single thin layer of flat cells for diffusion. (eg blood vessels and air sacs in lungs)
Three types of epithelial membrane:
Cutaneous membrane:
The soft outer covering of vertebrates, and guards the underlying muscles, bones, ligaments, and internal organs. Relates to the skin.
Mucous membranes:
Lines all the body cavities that open to the exterior e.g. mouth, nasal passages, urinary and reproductive tracts. Despite their name, they don’t all secrete mucus, but they are all moist surfaces.
Serous membranes:
Found in the three closed cavities: Pleural (lungs), peritoneal (abdominal), and pericardial (heart) cavities.
Occur in pairs, the visceral layer forms a lining around body organs, and folds outwards on itself to form a second layer, the parietal layer meaning that there is a small, potential gap in between the layers.
The potential gap between the two layers is labelled as the pleural cavity, and it contains a small amount of lubricating pleural fluid that reduces friction between the two surfaces.
Inflammation of the pleural space is known as ‘Pleurisy’.
Connective tissue membranes:
Line the fibrous capsules that surround joints. Synovial membranes are connective tissue membranes that provide a smooth surface around some joints and secrete a lubricating fluid called synovial fluid that helps to provide cushioning for body organs during muscle activity.
Scleroderma:
Also known as systemic sclerosis.
Chronic connective tissue disease generally classified as one of the autoimmune rheumatic diseases.
Symptoms:
Thickening or hardening of the skin. (sclero=hard, derma=skin).
“systemic sclerosis “ tells us more about the condition. It is a systemic disease (may affect many parts of the body) and sclerosis=thickening or hardening of the tissues
Scleroderma can cause serious damage to internal organs including the lungs, heart, kidneys, esophagus, and gastrointestinal tract. As such, it is often referred to as a “multi-system” disease. It can be life-threatening. Scleroderma is three to four times more prevalent in women.
Scleroderma is not contagious, infectious, cancerous or malignant.
Supporting Structures of the Integumentary system:
Hair, nails and sweat and oil glands.
Other than some minor protective duties of the eyebrows, eyelashes and hairs in the nose, the hair now usually plays a more cosmetic role than it did in the past when it was important for protecting against the cold. However, in some very cold climates it still has a significant function in maintaining warmth in the body.
The cutaneous glands, that is, the glands found in the skin, are exocrine glands that discharge their secretions into ducts before they are released on to the skin surface.
There are two types of cutaneous glands: sebaceous glands and sweat glands
Sebaceous glands are found all over the body. They produce sebum (‘grease’) which, as well as lubricating the skin, acts as an antiseptic agent, killing bacteria on contact. Sebum is produced in large quantities in adolescence, causing the skin to become oilier at this time of life, and resulting in teenage skin problems.
Burns:
Burns can result in damage to the cells and tissues of the body that can range from minor (but painful) through to life-threatening or fatal. Immediate loss of fluids through the damaged skin and underlying tissues can cause death, but if the patient survives the first 24 hours, infection can be fatal.
You should always seek advice from Specialist Burns Units regarding the most appropriate evidence-based treatment for serious burns, as these wounds will require specific and specialized care. Generally, these patients will be transferred to a Tertiary Hospital that has specialized facilities, resources, and personnel who are trained in best practice management of these conditions.
1st degree burn = only epidermis
2nd degree burn = epidermis and dermis
3rd degree burn = epidermis, dermis and hypodermis.
Pressure ulcers:
Also known as bedsores/pressure sores.
Occur when there is localised injury to the skin and/or underlying tissue usually over a bony prominence (e.g. heels, elbows, sacrum) due to the result of pressure or a combination of pressure and shearing forces. Prevention of pressure ulcers includes regular position changes, good hygiene and maintenance of skin.
Common locations: Back of head and ears Shoulders Elbows Lower back and buttocks Hips Inner knees Heels
Signs to watch for: discolouration numbness pain itching heat hardness
Eczema:
Also known as atopic dermatitis.
Chronic inflammatory condition that can cause symptoms such as dryness, redness and itching. Triggers include environmental irritants (e.g. soaps) and heat and sometimes food. Skin with eczema is more prone to infections such as Staphylococcus aureus.
Acne:
A common skin condition which often occurs in the teenage years. Acne is caused by inflammation of the hair follicles and commonly affects the face back and chest. Treatment can include over the counter topical remedies as well as prescribed treatments such as hormonal agents (e.g. oral contraceptives), antibiotics, retinoid creams or ointments.
Psoriasis:
A chronic skin condition which causes dry, red, raised patches of skin covered in silvery scales (plaques). Psoriasis can also affect the joints. Treatments can include moisturisers, topical treatments and UV light.
Rosacea:
A common skin condition that causes redness, flushing on the face. It can be triggered by sun exposure, stress, alcohol and hot, spicy foods.
Integumentary System Pharmacology:
Medication vary greatly according to the condition type and severity but can include both topical and systemic medications.
Systemic medications include:
Antibiotics to treat certain types of acne
Immunosuppressants used to treat psoriasis
Topical medications include:
Corticosteroid preparations used to relieve inflammation;
Anti-infective agents such as anti-biotic or antiviral preparations.
cicatrix:
actinis keratosis:
a normal scar resulting from the healing of a wound;
a precancerous skin growth that occurs on sun-damaged skin
alopecia universalis:
alopecia areata:
the total loss of hair on all parts of the body;
an autoimmune disorder that attacks the hair follicles, causing well-defined bald areas on the scalp or elsewhere on the body
bulla:
alopecia capitas totalis:
large blister, usually more than 0.5 cm in diameter;
an uncommon condition characterized by the loss of all the hair on the scalp
carbuncle:
anhidrosis:
a cluster of connected furuncles (boils);
abnormal condition of lacking sweat in response to heat
curettage:
blepharoplasty:
the removal of material from the surface by scraping;
the surgical reduction of the upper and lower eyelids by removing excess fat, skin, and muscle
cyst:
cellulitis:
abnormal sac containing gas/fluid/semisolid material;
an acute, rapidly spreading infection within the connective tissues that is characterized by malaise, swelling, warmth, and red streaks
diaphoresis:
chloasma:
profuse sweating;
a pigmentation disorder characterized by brownish spots on the face
dysplastic nevi:
comedo:
atypical moles that may develop into skin cancer;
a noninfected lesion formed by the buildup of sebum and keratin in a hair follicle
erythroderma:
contusion:
abnormal redness of the entire skin surface;
an injury to underlying tissues without breaking the skin and is characterized by discoloration and pain
granulation tissue:
cuticle:
tissue that normally forms during healing of a wound;
a narrow band of epidermis attached to the surface of the nail just in front of the root, protecting the new keratin cells as they form
