Management of the Marine Environment Flashcards
How does the coastal zone provide a valube resource?
- Covers 6.3% of the world’s oceans
- Inhabited by one third of the global population
- Provide 77% of the worlds natural economic value
- 1 billion people rely on marine and coastal resources as their sole means of income and for over 90% of their dietary needs
Why do conflict occur within the coastal zone?
- Focal point for human activities
- Range of stakeholders
- Coastal agriculture, forestry, transportation, power generations, tourism (Everything)
- Stakeholders have diverse levels of interest.
- Emergence and esculation results in conflict
- High abundance of natural resources
- Need for ocean resources increas
Issues associated with open-access resources
“Commons brings ruin to all” (Hardin, 1968)
- A growing degree of resource insecurity due to:
- vEnvironmental degradation
- vLimited occupational mobility
- vEconomic/political marginalisation
- vHigh levels of population growth
- vCivil strife
Global MPA’s
- 6,000 MPAs established globally (Chape et al., 2005)
- vogether, they cover an area of approximately 2.85 million km2 (not actually very much), representing:
- 0.8% of the world’s 361 million km2 of ocean
- 2.0% of the 147 million km2 of ocean under national jurisdiction
- Of the global marine area that is protected, only 300,000km2 - i.e. just under 10% of the global MPA area - is a marine reserve (‘no-take’ MPA)
- Hard to put legislation in place in the high seas
Why is social science important in establishing MPA’s?
- Vast majority are considered ‘paper parks’ - only 10% classed as meeting their multiple management objectives (Roberts, 1997)
- MPAs as “biological successes” and “social failures” (Christie, 2004)
- Socio-economic rather than ecological or biophysical factors may be primary determinants of MPA effectiveness (McClanahan, 1999; Christie et al., 2003; Christie, 2004; Mascia et al., 2003)
- Social factors are more important than biological for long term success.
How should social science operate in MPA’s.
MPA – role of science – speak to people it will affect
Stakeholder attitudes, beliefs, perceptions and values
- Local Ecological Knowledge/Traditional Ecological Knowledge
- Use patterns and conflicts
- Value of MPAs and associated resources
- Impact of MPAs on different stakeholder groups
- Differences of opinion between resource users and government
- Socioeconomic and demographic characteristics
- Informal/traditional marine governance systems
- Social capital arrangements and user dynamics
What are the characteristics and negative effects of goverment based management?
- Characteristics: Top-down, centralised, bureaucratic
- Negative effects: Stakeholder disempowerment
What are the characteristics and negative effects of co-managed social political aspects - governance and management.
Characteristics: Shared responsibility, decentralised
Negative effects: Stakeholder alienation
What are the characteristics and negative effects of community based social political aspects
Characteristics: Bottom-up, decentralised, participatory
Negative effects: Impact of corruption – different levels of rights
Case Study - Apo and Sumilon Marine Reserves, Philippines
Describe the areas and appraoches
- Apo established in 1982
- Sumilon established in 1974
- NTZ status on both islands established for both fisheries replenishment and conservation
- Apo island inhabited, Sumilon island non-inhabited
- Both community-based management
- Fairly regular ecological monitoring
- Sporadic social monitoring
Case Study - Apo and Sumilon Marine Reserves, Philippines
What were the reuslts of the reserves?
Social surveys (1986, 1992) at Apo revealed 100% respondents had positive attitude towards the MPA and unanimous awareness of rules and objectives (White & Calumpong, 1992)
Education initiative prior to MPA establishment to explain purpose of the MPA and potential benefits
- Economic benefits to all members of society through the generation of tourism revenue controlled by the community themselves with little outside intervention
- Social surveys (1976) with communities adjacent to Sumilon revealed lack of clarity about MPA purpose and almost a unanimous lack of perceived benefits (Cadeliña, 1976)
- Few knew about MPAs existence and few felt included in the management process, despite being community-based
- Rememebr the term ‘biological sucesses but social failures’
What is the ICZM criteria for MPA effectiveness?
- Protect representtative habitats
- Account for species migration patterns
- Account for oceanographic passes
- Ensure equitable enforcement measures
- Be percieved as legitatmate and gain support
- Ensure stakeholders percieve benefits / conflict mitigation measures are in place
- Ensure alternative livelyhoods are availible / indigenous rights considered
- Presence of an active educational programme
- Incorporate stakeholder partcipation
- Ensure desing allows for spill over.
Conclusions
vMPAs heavily advocated as a means of countering the Tragedy of the Commons on a global scale but ecological effectiveness remains low
vPrimarily due to social dimensions rather than biological factors
v
vMPAs that consider both social and ecological factors more likely to be
effective at meeting multiple and diverse objectives associated with many MPAs
v
vPressing international targets for ‘scaling up’ of the MPA-based management approach means socio-ecological approach to MPA establishment, monitoring and evaluation is imperative
v
vICZM as a framework that aims to promote participation and ownership in management process, as well as balance the different use values of the coastal zone can help meet international targets
Wider reading: MARINE & COASTAL ACCESS ACT, 2009
reduce complexity
Phillipson & Symes, 2010
Purpose of the MCA Act = marine spatial planning
= process of analysing and allocating the spatial and temporal distribution of multiple human activities in marine areas, e.g. industry, recreation, conservation, in order to achieve coordinated decisions, ensure sustainable use of the area & achieve ecological, economic & social objectives [http://msp.ioc-unesco.org/]
Overall aim = create ‘ecological coherent network’ of MPAs
MMO don’t have complete control ... coordination between administrations is critical
- have jurisdiction over UK waters that are ‘reserved’ that haven’t yet been devolved or “executively devolved”, i.e. government administrators are unable to change legislation so management is MMO’s responsibility
Scottish government have their own version of the Marine Act that accounts for areas that aren’t designated to the UK government e.g. shipping, oil & gas HOWEVER it doesn’t include fisheries management [which were prevalent in UK Act]
Welsh Assembly Government (WAG) – 2008 decided to directly control / responsibility for inshore fisheries management from April 2010 = “top-down solution to the management of Welsh inshore waters” contrast to the devolved approach of Eng & Scotland
Wider reading: MARINE & COASTAL ACCESS ACT, 2009
contradicting view
Boyes & Elliott, 2015
Contradicting view = “the 2009 Act has not reduced the complexity of marine management”
Claimed to take a holistic approach to protect the interests of a range of users of the marine environment, but countries have to report to a plethora of administrative bodies at various levels e.g. international, regional (e.g. England), so uniform regulations are difficult to achieve
- not having a single authority responsible for management = conflicting regulations due to multiple pieces of legislation
2009 Act set out to aim for ‘clean, healthy, safe, productive and biologically diverse oceans and seas’
... recognised that need for governance framework to make this happen = creation of MMO
As well as overseeing the criteria set out by the MCA Act it also has:
- conservation functions
- manage activities within MCZs
- licensing
- enforce legislation & licensing
Has the 2009 Act simplified management of the marine environment?
Overall, the introduction of licensing and various legislation = yes
EG – as of April 2014 dredging for navigation became a regulated activity that required a licence granted by the MMO [before it was only disposal of dredged material that needed one]
& was a significant progression towards “integrated management of the marine environment”
However, could be better as there are still inadequacies [applicable to management globally]
- ambiguities
- contradictions
& potentially more efficient approaches such as a more unified response in the form of one organisation for all activities
