psychopathology Flashcards
4 definitions of abnormality
- statistically infrequent
- deviation from social norms
- failure to function adequately
- deviation from ideal mental health.
statistical infrequency
defining abnormality in terms of statistics
any statistically common behaviour is normal
any statistically infrequent (rare) behaviour is abnormal.
application of statistical infrequency
IQ and intellectual disability disorder
the average IQ is 100
most people have an IQ score between 85 and 115
only 2% have a score below 70
those individuals scoring below 70 are statistically unusual or abnormal and are diagnosed with intellectual disability disorder ( IQ is shown as a bell curve)
evaluation of statistical infrequency
- real life application: all assessments of patients includes a comparison to statistical norms
- unusual characteristics +ve: just because it is infrequent doesn’t mean a disorder. High IQ are rare but not consider to be negative. limitation never should be used alone to diagnose
- not everyone unusual benefits from a label: when someone is living a happy life there is no benefit from labelling them abnormal. If someone has a low IQ but is not distressed or out of work they do not require a label. negative effect on perception
deviation from social norms
definition of abnormality
based on social context.
when a person behaves differently to social norm
societies and social groups make collective judgements about correct behaviours.
relatively few behaviours considered to be universally abnormal. definition relates to cultural context
this includes historical differences within the same society.
example of deviation from social norms
antisocial personality disorder (APD)
one important symptom of APD is a failure to conform to lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour
a psychopath is abnormal because they deviate from social norms / standards. the generally lack empathy
evaluation of deviation from social norms
- not sole explanation: APD shows there is a place for the definition but there are often other factors to consider. in practise never sole reason for defining.
- culturally relative: what may be normal to one culture is abnormal to another. creates problem of universality
- leads to human rights abuses: lead to systematic abuse of rights. Nymphomania (women attracted to working class men) are examples of where it was used for social control. some classification abuse rights to be different
failure to function adequately
the inability to cope with everyday living
abnormal when they cannot deal with the demands o every day life. e.g holding a job, maintaining relationships, maintaining basic standards of nutrition and hygiene
Rosenhan and seligman (1989)
- signs of failure to cope
- they can no longer conform to inter personal rules
- they experience personal distress
- they behave in a way that is irrational and dangerous
example of failure to function
intellectual disability disorder
having very low IQ could result in a person not being able to cope with demands of everyday living
evaluation of failure to function adequately
- recognises patient’s perspective: difficult to assess distress acknowledges experience of patient
- same as deviation from social norms: hard to say if someone is failing to function or deviation from social norms. live alternative lifestyles extreme sports behaving manipulatively. limiting freedom
- subjective judgement: some patients may feel distressed but judged fine. objective methods such as using checklists - does a psychiatrist have the right to make these judgements.
deviation from ideal mental health
think about what makes someone normal and psychologically healthy
then identify anyone who deviates from this ideal
Jahoda criteria of deviations from ideal mental health (8)
- we have no symptoms or distress
- we are rational and perceive ourselves accurately
- we self actualise
- we can cope with stress
- we have a realistic view of the world
- we have good self esteem and lack guilt
- we are independent of other people
- we can successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure.
how does deviation from ideal mental health overlap with other definitions
someones inability to keep a job may be a sign of failure to function or deviation from ideal mental health
evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health
- comprehensive: covers broad range of criteria and reasons someone would seek help or be referred
- culturally relative: specific to western culture emphasis on self actualisation considered as self indulgence in collectivist cultures
- unrealistically high standards: very few people can meet the high criteria so most people would be abnormal. positive clear ways on how to improve someone but has not value if it is against their will.
define phobia
a persistent and unreasonable fear of a particular object, activity or situation
behavioural characteristics of phobias
- panic
- this may involve crying, screaming or running away from the phobic stimulus - avoidance
- considerable effort to avoid coming into contact with the phobic stimulus. this can make it hard to go about everyday life
cognitive characteristics of phobias
- selective attention to the phobic stimulus
- the phobic finds it hard to look away from the phobic stimulus - irrational beliefs
e. g social phobias may involve beliefs such as I must always sound intelligent
emotional characteristics of phobias
- anxiety and fear
- fear is the immediate experience when a phobic encounters or thinks about the phobic stimulus. fear leads to anxiety - responses are unreasonable
- response is widely disproportionate to the threat posed.
two process model of explaining phobias
phobias are learned through classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning
acquisition of a phobia
classical conditioning
- UCS triggers a fear response (UCR)
e. g being bitten - NS is associated with the UCS e.g being bitten by a dog
- NS becomes a CS producing fear (CR)
e. g the dog becomes CS causing a CR of anxiety / fear.
little albert
watson showed how fear of rats could be conditionined
- whenever albert played with a white rat a loud noise was made close to his ear (UCS) with caused fear response (UCR)
- the rat (NS) did not create fear untol the bang and the rat had been paired together
3. albert showed a fear response (UR) every time he came into contact the the rat (CS)
maintenance of phobias by operant conditioning
negative reinforcement
an individual produces a behaviour that avoids something unpleasant
when a phobic avoid a phobic stimulus they escape the anxiety that would have been experienced
this reduction of fear is negative reinforcement so the avoidance behaviour and the phobia is maintained
evaluation of the 2 process model for phobias
- important implications for therapy and explains why patients need to be exposed to stimulus. application strength
- not all avoidance behaviour is associated with phobia is anxiety reduction. agoraphobia is motivated by safety so they will often leave the house with a trusted friend.
- does not explain where all phobias come from. some phobias are acquired without bad experiences. biological factors
- ignores cognitive aspects such as irrational thinking
- not all bad experiences lead to phobias
counter conditioning
systematic desensitisation SD
phobias is learned so that phobic stimulus CS produces fear (CR)
CS is paired with relaxation and this becomes the new CR
systematic desensitisation (SD)
treating phobias therapy aims to gradually reduce anxiety through counter conditioning includes: counter conditioning reciprocal inhibition anxiety hierarchy relaxation practises behavioural approach
reciprocal inhibition
systematic desensitisation
it is not possible to be afraid and related at the same time, so one emotion prevents the other
formation of an anxiety hierarchy
patient and therapist design one - a list of fearful stimulus arranged in order from least to most frightening
relaxation practices
systematic desensitisation (SD)
phobic individuals is taught relaxation techniques such as deep breathing or meditation
patient then works through anxiety hierarchy. at each level the phobic is exposed to phobic stimulus in a related state
this takes place over several sessions starting at the bottom of the hierarchy. Treatment is successful when the person can stay relaxed in situation high on the hierarchy.
evaluation of systematic desensitisation
- technique proven most effective with specific phobias. 42 patients with spider phobias. less fearful than control long lasting effect
- suitable for diverse range of patients: causes less trauma and involves pleasant experience. suitable for people with learning difficulties who struggle with cognitive which require reflection. acceptable to patients as it does not cause as much trauma as flooding.
low refusal rates and low attrition rates.
flooding
behavioural approach for treating phobias
flooding involves the immediate exposure to the phobic stimulus
how does flooding work?
extinction
without an option for avoidance behaviour, the participant quickly learns that the phobic object is harmless through exhaustion of their fear response
ethical safeguards in flooding
flooding is not unethical but it is an unpleasant experience
it is important patients give informed consent. they must be fully prepared and know what to expect
evaluation of flooding
- cost effective. studies found it highly effective and much quicker with less sessions needed
- less effective at treating more complex phobias such as social ones. as they experience more cognitive factors e.g irrational thinking and may benefit more from cognitive therapies
- treatment is highly traumatic. although not unethical with informed consent. participants often unwilling to see it through. wasting money and time. treatment not effective.
