Sampling, Ethical issues, Pilot studies & Peer review

Question 1

What is a pilot study?

Answer 1

A small-scale trial of the research design, prior to the full-scale study with the purpose to identify problems with the design, method or analysis so that they can be fixed before the full-scale study is carried out

Question 2

Why might a pilot study be used?

Answer 2

• to check that instructions are standardised and the instructions given to the participant are clear to understand and that they have enough time to carry out tasks given
• participants can be asked about possible problems and suggest changes
• saves time and expense

Question 3

What is the target population?

Answer 3

the group of people to whom the researchers wish to generalise their findings

Question 4

What is the sample?

Answer 4

the group of people that take part in the study and a representative sample is a sample who are typical (representative) of the target population

Question 5

What is the sampling frame?

Answer 5

the source material from which the sample is drawn, list of all those within population who can be sampled, may include individuals, households or institutions, must be representative of the population

Question 6

What is sampling bias?

Answer 6

a systematic error due to a non-random sample of a population, causing some members to be less likely to be included than others, resulting in a biased sample

Question 7

What is random sampling?

Answer 7

every member of the target population has an equal chance of being detected to be in the sample

Question 8

What are the strengths of using random sampling?

Answer 8

• reduces the change of a biased sample (avoids bias) as every member of the target population has an equal change of being selected
• as sample is less likely to be biased, more likely to be representative of the target population and results can be generalised to that population

Question 9

What are the disadvantages of random sampling?

Answer 9

• almost impossible to obtain a truly random sample as all names in target population may not be known - problem finding suitable sampling frame
• some selected may choose not to take part, then the kind who do take part are over-represented, causing the sample to be biased
• some methods, may not be possible
• of the populations is very heterogeneous, the results can vary considerably from one sample to another

Question 10

What is systematic sampling?

Answer 10

a system to select who will be asked to participate, choosing every nth number from a list of the population (n is the sampling interval)

Question 11

What are strengths of systematic sampling?

Answer 11

• reduces the chances of investigator bias in selection

- easier to carry out random sampling, with less chance of mistake - particularly useful with large populations

Question 12

What are the limitations of systematic sampling?

Answer 12

• cannot guarantee everyone will want to take part
• if there’s a periodic pattern in the list, results may be biased
• may not be possible (field or natural)

Question 13

What is stratified sampling?

Answer 13

when the population is divided into non-overlapping categories (strata), divide how to stratify the population, then ascertain what % of the entire population is in the strata - size of sample from each strata needs to be PROPORTIONAL to the number of people from the population in it
then obtain sample from within strata using random sampling

Question 14

What are the strengths of stratified sampling?

Answer 14

• if population is heterogeneous, gives a more realistic picture than random sampling and ensures the representation on key strata

Question 15

What are the limitations of stratified sampling?

Answer 15

• detailed information atout the population is required to define the strata, which may be very difficult to obtain
• crucial to use correct stratification according to factors that affect investigation - may not be known what these are in advance

Question 16

What is opportunity sampling?

Answer 16

uses participants from the target population who are available at the time

Question 17

What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?

Answer 17

• quick and easy to do (inexpensive)

- face-to-face ethical debriefings and debriefings can be undertaken

Question 18

What are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling?

Answer 18

• samples potentially biased as participation depends on availability at the time of the research, location will also be a source of bias
• researcher may introduce bias by only approaching individuals they find appealing

Question 19

What is volunteer sampling?

Answer 19

participants from the target population who select themselves e.g. by responding to an advertisement

Question 20

What are strengths of volunteer sampling?

Answer 20

• participants give informed consent will be interested in the research, and are therefore, less likely to withdraw
• method is quick and easy

Question 21

What are limitations of volunteer sampling?

Answer 21

• volunteer sample may not be representative of the target population as volunteers may be different from non-volunteers in some way
• volunteer bias exists, where volunteers found to be more agreeable more open to experience and extraverted than non-volunteers

Question 22

What is the role of the British Psychological Society’s 4 codes of ethics?

Answer 22

• respect for the autonomy, privacy and dignity of individuals and communities
• scientific integrity
• social responsibility
• maximising benefit and minimising harm

Question 23

What is deception?

Answer 23

misleading the participants about the purpose of research, what they will be asked to do in the research, the reality of task and/or other participants

Question 24

Why is deception considered unethical?

Answer 24

• prevents participants being able to give informed consent
• participants may learn things about themselves that they do not wish to know
• researchers have the responsibility of being trustworthy
• it may make participants have negative feelings about research

Question 25

How can we deal with deception?

Answer 25

• role plays: participants told full details of the research and asked to act out how they would if they were in that situation (may not be realistic, and may not remove the problem of harm)
• debriefing: participants given full information about the research after they have participated and ask questions
• opportunity to withdraw their data

Question 26

What is informed consent?

Answer 26

when participants are given all of the information about an experiment, prior to it , as well as possible consequences of taking part, enables them to divide whether to take part or not

Question 27

How do we deal with informed consent?

Answer 27

• presumptive consent
• prior general consent
• retrospective consent

Question 28

What is presumptive consent?

Answer 28

a sample from the target population are asked if they would give their consent to take part in a particular study, if they say yes, it is presumed a different sample from the same population would also say yes, so consent has been gained

Question 29

What is prior general consent?

Answer 29

participants are asked whether they would consent to a range of different types of research and included in the list is the actual research they will be part of, if they agree, they have given consent

Question 30

What is retrospective consent?

Answer 30

in the debrief, all details are explained to the participants and they are asked if they consent to their data being used, if they decline, their data is removed from the results

Question 31

What is protection from harm?

Answer 31

primary responsibility of researchers to protect participants from both physical and psychological harm, risk should be no greater than found in ordinary life and participants should leave the study in the same condition in which they entered it

Question 32

How do we protect participants from harm?

Answer 32

• anticipate the harm and prevent the study from taking place
• debriefing to restore them to the same state they entered the experiment in

Question 33

What is right to withdraw?

Answer 33

the idea that participants should be allowed to withdraw from a study at anytime, without penalty

Question 34

How do we deal with the right to withdraw?

Answer 34

needs to be emphasised (without penalty) prior to the research as well as throughout the research, where not possible, in a debrief, and given the opportunity to withdraw their data

Question 35

What is confidentiality?

Answer 35

a right under the Data Protection Act, researchers do not record the names of their participants or the location that the research took place

Question 36

Dealing with confidentiality

Answer 36

use initials or false names (this doesn’t always work as case studies involve individuals who can be identified due to their unusual circumstances, even if names are changed)

Question 37

What is invasion of privacy?

Answer 37

idea that it is unacceptable to observe someone where they could not be naturally seen, but it is acceptable to observe them in public places (still may be issues)

Question 38

What are the problems relying on guidelines to solve the problems of ethics in research?

Answer 38

• What happens if they are not abided by? (guidelines are not laws yet BPS can revoke membership for unethical research)
• establishing ‘rules’ may close off discussion about ethical issues
• ethical codes may remove personal responsibility from researchers

Question 39

What is cost-benefit analysis?

Answer 39

the cost of the research in terms of harm caused to the patients needs to be weighed up against the benefits the findings will bring to the wider population

Question 40

What are issues associated with cost-benefit analysis?

Answer 40

• severity of costs and importance of benefits are subjective decisions
• difficult to quantify costs/benefits to compare them
• how do we know what the costs will be in advance?

Question 41

What is peer review?

Answer 41

where several expert reviewers (2/3) in a specific field are send copies of a researcher’s work and review it anonymously, highlighting weaknesses or problems and suggesting improvements if necessary to ensure publication of a high quality

Question 42

What is the importance of peer review in the scientific process?

Answer 42

• ensures that any claims made by the study under review are valid and less likely influenced by bias
• research funding
• suggest amendments/improvements

Question 43

What are the problems associated with peer review that may lead to bias?

Answer 43

• research that didn’t find significant findings or is less interesting, may be less likely to be selected for review/publication, leading to the file-drawer problem as the published research gives a misleading picture
• if research distress with preferred theories put forward, may be difficult for reviewers to avoid finding more fault with papers they disagree with, making it more likely such research is rejected - might slow process of scientific advance
• papers put forward by those with recognised names are more likely to be accepted for publication than same paper with an unknown name ‘celebrity’ effect (obvious solution is the submit papers for review anonymously)

Question 44

What is an estimate to the contribution by psychology to the economy?

Answer 44

UK psychology departments currently receive in excess £50million annually in research grants

Question 45

Where can we see psychology’s contribution to the economy through practical application?

Answer 45

• treatments for mental disorders, Mental Health Foundation estimates 25% population suffer some kind of mental health illness over the course of a year and 40% claiming a capacity benefit are doing so due to anxiety/depression
• 1/3 of absences from work due to psychological problems
• effective therapies make huge savings by allowing people to return more quickly