8. Kafli Flashcards
(148 cards)
1
Q
What are memory codes?
A
Mental representation of some type of information or stimulus
2
Q
The process that allows us to record, store, and later retrieve experiences and information is called..?
A
Memory
3
Q
Which of the following are stages in the three-stages model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968)?
A
- Working memory
- Long-term memory
- Sensory memory
4
Q
What is the purpose of storage in memory?
A
To retain information over time?
5
Q
What memory is a memory store that temporarily holds and manipulates a limited amount of information?
A
Short-term or working
6
Q
Sensory memory:
A
Briefly holds incoming sensory information
7
Q
Working memory:
A
Processes certain information and information retrieve from long term memory
8
Q
Long term memory:
A
Stores information for longer periods of time
9
Q
Mental representation of sensory and semantic information are called memory..?
A
Codes
10
Q
Memory allows us to record, ____and later ____ experiences and information
A
Store, retrieve
11
Q
When you hear about ‘the magical number seven, plus or minus two,’ you automatically think about
A
Miller’s conceptualization of short-term memory
12
Q
When a memory is held for a limited amount of time it is known as..?
A
A short-term memory
13
Q
Which task is typically used to measure the capacity of short-term memory?
A
Digit span
14
Q
Which mechanism explains that we can only remember around 7 unrelated letter, but can remember a sentence of 20 letters easily?
A
Chunking
15
Q
Lucy is introduced to someone at a party, but only a moment later she realises that she has forgotten his name. This demonstrates that short-term memory has limited..?
A
Duration
16
Q
When a memory is held for a limited amount of time it is known as..?
A
A short-term memory
17
Q
Susy was just introduced to a new colleague and is now silently repeating the name of that person. Which working memory component is she using according to Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) model?
A
Phonological loop
18
Q
According to Miller (1956), short-term memory has a capacity of _____ plus or minus two stimuli
A
Seven
19
Q
According to Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) model of working memory, the phonological loop briefly stores mental representations of sounds. The phonological loop consists of which sub-components?
A
- Articulatory rehearsal systems
- Phonological store
20
Q
According to Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) model of working memory, visual and spatial information is briefly stored in the visuospatial..?
A
Sketchpad
21
Q
Besides in capacity, short term memory is also limited in..?
A
Duration
22
Q
According to Baddeley’s (2002) model on working memory, mental representations of sounds are stored in the..?
A
Phonological loop
23
Q
According to Baddeley’s (2002) model on working memory, the temporary storage space where information from long term memory and from ‘slave systems’ is integrated, manipulated and made available for conscious awareness, is called the..?
A
Episodic buffer
24
Q
Which working memory component briefly stores a mental image of a person’s face?
A
Visuospatial sketchpad
25
What activity is an example of the function of the central executive, a component of working memory?
You plan and control the steps in a math problem
26
Which of the following best defines the central executive component of short term working memory?
It directs overall action
27
According to Cowan (1999, 2001), the capacity of working memory is restricted to..?
Four chunks of information
28
Which working memory component plans and controls actions, divides attention between the other sub-components, and integrates information within the episodic buffer?
Central executive
29
Cowan (1999, 2001) argues that how much information can be kept active in working memory, depends on the allocation of..?
Attention
30
As far as psychologists know, the storage capacity of long term memory is?
Unlimited
31
How does the quality of encoding affect retrival?
The better we encode information, the easier it will be to retrieve
32
Which of the following best defines the central executive component of short term working memory?
It directs overall action
33
POTATO: is the word in capital letters?
Structural encoding
34
HORSE: does the word rhyme with course?
Phonological encoding
35
TABLE: does the word fit in the sentence 'he makes the____'?
Semantic encoding
36
Information processed at what level is easier to remember?
At a deeper level
37
Tim needs the number of a new restaurant in town he has been hearing about. When he calls a friend to get the number, he repeats it to himself until he can make the call. This approach is called..?
Maintenance rehersal
38
The three levels of encoding according to Craik and Lockhart's (1972) theory?
- Semantic encoding
- Structural encoding
- Phonological encoding
39
Maintenance rehearsal is useful to keep information in..?
Working memory but not in long term memory
40
Focusing on the meaning of information, or thinking about it in some way, is called..?
Elaborative rehersal
41
How would you describe Craik and Lockhart's level of processing theory?
The more intensely we process information, the better we will remember it
42
Of the following, which is the most effective in terms of getting information into long term memory?
Elaborative rehersal
43
Why is organising to-be-remembered material in a hierarchy beneficial?
- A hierarchy helps us to see how things are connected
- A hierarchy provides cues that aid in remembering
- There is a visual representation
44
Simple rote repetition that keeps information active in working memory is called..?
Maintenance rehearsal
45
Which theory states that encoding information using both verbal and visual codes enhances memory?
Dual encoding theory
46
Which of the following is an example of the method of loci?
I remember my shopping list by linking each item with locations in my house
47
Verb phrases are memorized better if a learner performs the described action during learning, compared to just getting the verbal information. One possibility is that, besides the verbal information, subject performed tasks have the additional benefit of..?
'seeing' and 'motor feedback'
48
PEDMAS stands for please my aunt sally. This is used to remember the order of operations in mathematics. This is an example of..?
Acronym and Mnemonic
49
A mnemonic device where one or more letters are combined is called an..?
Acronym
50
Memory for a subject performed task is far better than memory for the same information when presented verbally. This is called the..?
Enactment effect
51
How would you classify hierarchies, chunking, acronyms, visual imagery, and the method of loci?
Mnemonic devices
52
Chase and Simon (1973) show that the strategies that help chess experts understand a chess board game in mid-game are..?
Schema and chunking
53
Compared to other people, London taxi drivers show _____ in their hippocampus, the brain area responsible for spatial memory.
Structural changes
54
A person who displays extraordinary memory skills is called a?
Mnemonist
55
How does Boscher (2002) define the long term process of developing sophisticated schemas that help encode information into meaningful patterns?
Expertise
56
Stating that memory is enhanced forming associations between different items in memory implies a..?
Network approach
57
Long term memory can be represented as an _____ network, which is a massive network of associated ideas and concepts.
Associative
58
When you think about autumn, related concepts such as leaves and orange are activated. What does this situation represent?
The priming/spreading activation concept of the associative network model
59
What is the name given to a mathematical model of a collection of artificial neurons that mimic some aspect of learning?
Neural network
60
What is the model in which each memory is represented by a unique pattern of interconnected and simultaneously activated nodes called?
- Neural network model
| - Connectionist model
61
Declarative memory includes what memories as subcategories?
- Episodic memory
| - Semantic memory
62
Remembering what you ate for breakfast this morning is an example of..?
Episodic memory
63
Amanda knows how to ride a bicycle. This is an example of..?
Procedural memory
64
In neural network models, each memory is represented by a unique pattern of interconnected and..?
Simultaneously activated nodes
65
What type of memory is comprised entirely of factual knowledge?
Semantic
66
Anthony knows that Mount Everest is the world's tallest peak. This is an example of..?
Semantic memory
67
Tameka knows how to type very well. This is an example of..?
Procedural memory
68
How is information retrieved from memory?
Information is activated by a retrieval cue accompanied by the process of spread activation
69
An internal or external stimulus that activates information stored in long term memory is known as a?
Retrieval cue
70
Arthur's physics professor uses fire to demonstrate important physics principles, and Arthur finds he can remember there principles better this way. This is an example of the value of..?
Distinctiveness on remembering
71
Allison cried and found herself hysterically happy at her twin sister's wedding. She will most likely remember that day because it was..?
Emotionally arousing
72
Memory researchers have found that ______ or unusual events such as births, deaths, vacations, weddings, accidents and romantic encounters are more likely to be remembered that routine events.
Distinctive
73
Dana fondly remembers the day she met her husband. This remembrance is an example of..?
Autobiographical memory
74
What type of memory occurs for distinctive events and creates a clear and vivid picture in your mind?
Flashbulb memory
75
Regarding the relation between confidence in one's memory and its actual accuracy, the overall conclusion is that..?
Some studies show a positive relationship, whereas others only found a weak relationship
76
A memory that is so vivid and clear that it seems like a snapshot of the moment is called a..?
Flashbulb memory
77
The encoding specificity principle states that memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval ______ those that present during encoding
Match
78
Context-dependent memory shows that it is typically ______ to remember something in the same environment in which it was originally encoded.
Easier
79
The fact that it is easier to retrieve information when our internal state at the time of retrieval matches the original state during learning, is represented by..?
State dependent memory
80
Of course, many drugs impair memory. But beside that, the fact that events experienced while in a drugged state are difficult to remember when sober, is explained by a phenomenon of..?
State dependent memory
81
What describes the fact that memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match those that were present when the material was learned
The encoding specificity principle
82
The fact that it is typically easier to remember something in the same environment in which it was originally encoded, demonstrates that memory is..?
Context-dependent
83
What is the main idea of state-dependent memory?
We are able to retrieve information better when our internal state matches our original state during learning
84
Alice is in a terrible mood. According to mood congruent recall, she is..?
More likely to remember negative events and more likely to remember material she learned when she was in a bad mood
85
Ebbinghaus (1964) showed that nonsense material is lost rapidly, and represented this in his classic..?
Forgetting curve
86
The four causes of forgetting:
- Interference
- Motivated forgetting
- Decay of the memory trace
- Encoding failure
87
When memory fails not from forgetting but from failure to encode, information was..?
Never stored into long term memory
88
When you're happy, you are more likely to recall positive events, and when you are sad, you tend to remember negative events. This describes the concept of..?
Mood congruent
89
What is suggested by Ebbinghaus's curve?
- Meaningful material is forgotten more slowly than nonsense material
- Forgetting occurs rapidly at first and slows thereafter
90
Encoding failure, decay of memory trace, interference, and motivated forgetting are causes of..?
Forgetting
91
You cannot remember what is on the previous page of a book because your mind was on something else when you were reading it. Here memory failue is the result of..?
An encoding failure
92
When information is not used and fades away it is said to be lost or forgotten through the process of..?
Decaying
93
Which of the following is true in regard to interference theory?
- It involves proactive interference
| - It involves retroactive interference
94
Proactive interference occurs when ____ material interferes with recall of _____ material.
Old, new
95
An example of proactive interference:
Samantha has studied Latin previously and she finds that it interferes with her current study of Greek
96
Examples of retroactive interference:
- Shelley is learning Russian and finds that she sometimes has problems recalling words from her previously study of french
- Randy has just got a new phone number and remembers it but, when asked to remember his old phone number, he draws a blank
97
The term decay refers to loss of information due to..?
Lack of use
98
The theory that assumes that we forget information not through lack of use but because other items in long term memory impair our ability to retrieve it, is called..?
Interference theory
99
What type of interference occurs when material learned in the past interferes with the recall of newer material?
Proactive
100
Remembering to perform an activity in the future is called..?
Prospective memory
101
Besides memory, successful prospective memory (remembering to do things in the future) requires other cognitive tasks such as..?
- Planning
| - Allocating attention
102
Memory loss for events that took place before amnesia is called..?
Retrograde amnesia
103
Memory loss for events that occur after the onset amnesia is called..?
Anterograde
104
The theory that assumes that we forget information not through lack of use but because other items in long term memory impair our ability to retrieve it, is called..?
Interference theory
105
When rugby players are knocked out by a concussion and regain consciousness, they often cannot remember the events just before being hit. This is a demonstration of..?
Retrograde amnesia
106
Research showed that severely depressed patients perform less well on prospective memory tasks. What are the possible explanations?
- Depressed patients use attentional resources inefficiently
| - Depressed patients have problems with executive functioning
107
After HM's brain operation (removal of much of his hippocampus) he was unable to consciously remember new experiences and facts. This is a demonstration of..?
Anterograde amnesia
108
Which progressive brain disorder is considered to be the most common cause of dementia among elderly adults?
Alzheimer's disease
109
How would you describe Alzheimer’s disease?
- It is a progressive brain disorder
| - It is the most common cause of dementia
110
Which neurological problems characterise Alzheimer’s disease?
- Impaired neuronal communication
- Tangles
- Plaques
- Neuronal damage
- Acetylcholine dysfunctioning
- Tissue shrinkage
111
Researchers have identified one risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease, what is it?
Genetic risk factor
112
Which of the following are early symptoms of Alzheimer's disease?
- Confusion and disorientation
| - Forgetfulness and poor judgment
113
What are possible explanations for infantile amnesia?
- Early memories are not encoded deeply and they lack sufficient retrieval cues
- Because infants lack self-concept, they have no frame of reference to use to organize memories
- Brain regions that encode memories are immature
114
Prospective memory refers to remembering..?
Future events
115
Piercing together bits of stored information to complete a sketchy or incomplete memory is called memory..?
Construction
116
Memory is often reconstructed in such a way that people generalize ideas about how events typically happen. These general ideas about things in the world are called..?
Schemas
117
When our memories are incomplete or sketchy, we may engage in a process called..?
Memory construction
118
In an experiment conducted by Barlett, people who had read a story retold it sometime later..?
In a reconstructed way that made sense to them
119
The case of Father Bernard Pagano was used by Tversky and Tuchin (1989) as an example of..?
The misinformation effect
120
Which of the following best describe source confusion?
- It can cause misinformation effects
- It is a source monitoring error
- The tendency to recall something or recognize it as familiar but to forget where we encountered it
121
A distortion of memory by misleading information that takes place after the event is called the..?
Misinformation effect
122
What type of information may lead to false memories, and should be taken into account when questioning eye witnesses?
Suggestive information
123
There were two key factors that may have distorted witnesses' memories in the case of Father Bernard Pagano..?
- The politeness of the robber was consistent with a schema people have of priests
- Before interviewing witnesses, the police indicated that the robber might be a priest
124
Our tendency to recall something or recognize it as familiar but to forget where we encountered it, is called..?
Source confusion
125
What is true about research findings in regard to children as eyewitnesses?
- Younger children are more susceptible to influence and suggestion that older children
- Suggestive questioning can influence children
- Professionals have difficulty discriminating between true and false reports
126
What makes it difficult for professionals to reliably distinguish between children's accurate and false reports of sexual abuse?
After suggestive questioning, children are as confident of their false memories as they are of their accurate ones
127
According to Loftus and Davis (2006), what kind of memories may result from suggestions of therapists in therapeutic sessions?
False memories
128
The case of Father Bernard Pagano was used by Tversky and Tuchin (1989) as an example of..?
The misinformation effect
129
What type of false confessions did psychologist Kassin identify?
- Voluntary false confessions
- Compliant false confessions
- Internalized false confessions
130
When questioning a child about sexual abuse, the most accurate information is generally gained by using..?
Free recall
131
In what ways do culture and memory have a reciprocal relationship?
- Culture could not exist without the ability to remember
| - Cultural upbringing helps shape schemas
132
Lashley was searching for a physical trace in the brain that was formed when a memory was formed. He called this trace an..?
Engram
133
Memories are stored where?
Throughout the brain
134
Which of the following ways in which the brain is studied in terms of memory?
- Through research on laboratory animals
- By studying people with brain damage
- Through brain imaging
135
The gradual process by which the brain transfers information into long term memory is called..?
Encoding
136
In general, where are declarative memories stored? (episodic and semantic memories)
Across distributed cortical areas
137
Which part of the memory process might be impaired when the thalamus is damaged?
Encoding and retrieval
138
One way to study where memories are formed and stored is by studying patients who have..?
Brain damage
139
What plays a key role in the executive functioning component of working memory?
The frontal lobe
140
Memory consolidation is a gradual process by which the brain..?
Transfers information into long term memory
141
Which brain area encodes emotionally arousing aspects of events?
Amygdala
142
Which brain region plays an important part in forming procedural memories, and especially classically conditioned responses?
Cerebellum
143
What statement best supports what happens when the cerebellum is damaged?
Classically conditioning responses are abolished
144
Which information is typically encoded by the amygdala?
Arousal and emotions
145
What is the definition of long term potentiation?
An enduring increase in synaptic strength
146
The cerebellum plays a key role in which aspect of memory?
Procedural memory and conditioning
147
When memories form, structural and chemical neuronal changes occur. This in turn, enhances..?
Synaptic transmission
148
What improves memory and academic learning?
- Overlearning
- Elaboration
- Organization and making connections
- Using imagery
