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FUCK > biology > Flashcards

biology Flashcards

1
Q

Matter

A

all the stuff around us
-substance that takes up space and has mass

Composed of:
-elements

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2
Q

Atom

A

smallest unit of matter

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3
Q

Molecule

A

when two or more atoms join together

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4
Q

Ribose

A

5 carbon sugar (CH2O)n where n=5

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5
Q

Fructose

A

6 carbon sugar (CH2On where n=6 and is an isomer of glucose

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6
Q

Glucose

A

6 carbon sugar (CH2O)N where n=6 and is an isomer of fructose

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7
Q

Dissacharides

A

2 monomers come together via dehydration rxn or condensation rxn

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8
Q

What connects carbohydrates together?

A

glycosidic bond

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9
Q

Sucrose

A

dissacharide

-1 glucose and 1 fructose

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10
Q

Lactose

A

dissacharide

-1 galactose and 1 glucose

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11
Q

Maltose

A

dissacharide

-2 glucose monomers linked togehter

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12
Q

Starch

A

Polysaccharide

  • storage in plants
  • glucose monomers linear and branched
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13
Q

Amylose

A

linear plant starch

-a-1,4 glycosidic bonds

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14
Q

Amylopectin

A

branched form of plant starch

-a-1,6 glycosidic bonds

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15
Q

Glycogen

A

Polysaccharide found in humans

  • storage of glucose in humans
  • more branching than in starch (amylopectin)
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16
Q

Cellulose

A

Structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls

  • glucose polymer
  • B-1,4 glycosidic bonds
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17
Q

Polypeptide

A

Polymers of amino acids connected by peptide bonds

-form via dehydration rxn to make peptide bonds

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18
Q

Secondary structure of protein

A

intermolecular interactions between atoms of poleypetid backbone

  • does not involve R groups
  • Hydrogen bonding N-H

Most commne secondary proteins:
b-pleated sheets
-alpha helices

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19
Q

Tertiary Structure

A

interaction between R groups at various Aino acids:

-interactions includse: ioninc bonding, hydrogen bonding, dipole dipole interactions and London dispersions

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20
Q

What can denature proteins?

A

excess temperature
chemicals
pH changes
radiation

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21
Q

Protein Function

A

1) Storage
- reserve of amino acids
2) Hormones
- signaling molecules that circulate through the body to regulate physiological processes
3) Motion
- Movement generation for individual cells or entire organism
4) Structure
- provide strength and support to tissues
5) Immunity
- prevention and protection against foreign invaders
6) Enzymes

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22
Q

Enzymes

A

biological, globular (usually) protein catalysts that speed up specific forward and reverse reactions by lowering activation energies

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23
Q

Enzymes specificity constant

A

measures how efficient an enzyme is converting a substrate to product
-High specificity constant=High substrate affinity=highly efficient enzyme

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24
Q

Ribozyme

A

RNA molecule capable of acting like an enzyme

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25
Q

Cofactors

A

nonprotein molecules

-assist enzymes in the reaction they manipulate

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26
Q

Coenzymes

A

Organic Coenzymes
-ex: vitamins

Inorganic Coenzymes
-metal ions such as Fe2+ or Mg2+

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27
Q

Holoenzymes

A

enzymes that are bound to their cofactor

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28
Q

Apoenzyme

A

enzyme not bound to cofactor

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29
Q

Competitive inhibition

A

inhibitors compete with substrates for active sites on enzymes
-increase substrate; higher chance substrate binds to active site(outcompete)

Km Increases
-Vmax remains the same

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30
Q

Noncompetitive inhibition

A

Inhibitors bind to allosteric site of enzymes
-modifies active site so that the substrate has reducing binding or can’t bind to active site at all

Km remains the same
Vmax Decreeases

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31
Q

Velocity (V) or reaction

-definition

A

rate at which the reaction is occuring

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32
Q

Vmax

-definition

A

Maximum velocity the reaction can go

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33
Q

Michaelis Constant (Km)

A

the susbtrate concentration at which the velocity is 50% of the Vmax

  • small Km=high binding affinity, only need a little bit of substrate
  • large Km=low binding affinity, need a lot of substrate
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34
Q

Polypeptides

A

polymers of amino acids

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35
Q

Lipids

A

Hydrophobic, non polar molecules

-long hydrocarbon chain

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36
Q

Lipids function

A

1) Store energy
2) Provide insulation
3) contribute to cell membranes
4) synthesis of critical hormones

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37
Q

Triacylglycerol/triacylglyceride

A 
Lipid Molecule: Fat
-found in cells call adipocytes 
composed of:
glycerol backbone
-3 FAtty acid tails
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38
Q

Phospholipids

A 
found in cell membranes
LIPID MOLECULE
Composed of:
-glycerol backbone 
-one phosphate group (Polar head group)
-2 FA's

AMPHipathic molecule-contain hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules

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39
Q

Amphipathic

A

contain hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

40
Q

Glycolipids

A 
Found in cell membranes
LIPID MOLECULE 
Composed of:
glycerol backbone
-carbohydrate (polar head grouP)
-2FA's
41
Q

Cholesterol

A

LIPID MOlecule

  • make up 30-40% of eukaryotic cell membrane
  • amphipathic
  • 4 hydrocarbon rings=steroid nucleus

Liver makes cholesterol and also comes from our diet

42
Q

What factors influence the fluidity of a membrane

A

1) temperature
2) cholesterol
3) degrees of unsaturation

Cold:
increases FA unsaturation

43
Q

Function of cholesterol

A

1) Membrane fluidity
2) precursor for Vit D, Bile Acids,
3) Steroid Precursor
- testosterone and estrogen (sex hormones)

44
Q

Why is RNA more reactive than DNA

A

RNA is more reactive (less stable) due to its 2’OH

45
Q

Which nitrogenous bases bind to each other in DNA vs RNA and how many bonds between

A

DNA
A=T 2 H bonds
G-C 3 H bonds

RNA
A=U 2 H bonds
G-C 3 H bonds

46
Q

Cell Theory

A

1) All life is composed of one or more cells
2) The cell is the basic structural, functional, and organizational unit of life
3) All cells come from preexisting cells via cell division
4) Division allows the genetic information within the cell to be passed onto new cells
5) organisms activity is dependent on the activity of its independent cells
6) Metabolism and biochemistry (energy Flow) occurs within the cells
7) All cells have the same chemical composition

**DOES NOT APPPLY TO VIRUSES BC THEY ARE NOT Living cells

47
Q

Prions

A

misfolded proteins that cause other proteins to misfold

-destroy function

48
Q

Cell Membrane

A

composed of:

1) Phospholipids
2) Cholesterol
3) Proteins

49
Q

Membrane Proteins

Cell membrane

A

2 types:

1) Integral Proteins (Transmembrane proteins)
- extend through the entire phospholipid bilayr
- amphipathic
- Receptor proteins

2) Peripheral membrane Protein
- on the periphery
- hydrophilic
- can be attached to to the hydrophilic surface of integral membanre proteins or partially inserted into the membrane

50
Q

Peripheral Membrane function

A

1) Adhesion Proteins
- attach adjacent cells to other things Iike other cells
- act as anchors for the cytoskeleton
2) Cellular regonition proteins:
- help cells recognize each other
- interact with receptor proteins

51
Q

Simple Diffusion

A
  • Flow of substances down their concentration gradient (High to Low concentration)
  • usually small uncharged nonpolar particles such as Oxygen and CO2
  • Does not require energy/consume energy

Osomosis a type of simple diffusion

52
Q

Facilitated Transport

A

How large, hydrophilic molecules travel across the phospholipid bilayer through integral proteins

Can be:

  • uniport-one molecule moving in one direction
  • symport- several molecules moving in one direction
  • antiport- several molecules moving in opposite direction
53
Q

2 main types of integral proteins involved in facilitated transport

A

Channel Proteins

  • Tunnels that face extracellular and intracellular environments
  • small polar molecules and ions

Carrier proteins:

  • change shape to facilitate movement of molecules through the protein
  • only face one side at a time
54
Q

Passive Diffusion

A

Type of Facliitate transport

  • particles down their concentration gradient (high to low concentration)
  • does not require eneergy
  • relies on channel proteins (Tunnels)
55
Q

Porins

A

example of channel proteins used in passive diffusion

56
Q

Active Transport

A

particles travel against their concentration gradient (low to high concentration)

  • require energy input
  • energy source dictates if it will be primary or secondary active transport
  • rely on carrier proteins that change their shape
57
Q

Primary Active Transport

A

-used the energy released from ATP hydrolysis to pump molecules against their concentration gradient

Ex: Na+/K+ pump because it hydrloyzes ATP

58
Q

Na+/K+ pump

A

exchanges:
-3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in; both go against concentration gradient by primary active transport
Pump consumes one ATP molecule
-ATP hydrolysis powers pump
-pump also an ATPase(ATP hydrolysis enzyme)

59
Q

Secondary Active Transport

A

uses energy obtained form a source other than ATP

  • usually free energy released by molecules traveling down their concentariotn gradient
  • *relies on primary active transport to create concentration gradient
60
Q

Cytosis

A

processes the cells use to facilitate bulk transport of large, hydrophilic/polar molecules

2 main types:
-Endocytosis
-exocytosis
both require energy 
-both are active transport mechanism
61
Q

Endocytosis

A

cell membrane forms a plasma membrane bound package (vacuole or vesicle) around something the extracellular matrix wants to internalize
-transports molecules into the cell

62
Q

Phagocytosis

A

type of endocytosis

  • cell engulfs undissolved materials
  • known as cellular eating
63
Q

Pinocytosis

A

type of endocytosis: similar to phagocytosis

  • known as cellular drinking
  • cell will pinch inward (INVAGINATE) so that it engulfs dissolved materials (liquids)
64
Q

Exocytosis

A

when material exit the cell

-essential part of the vesicle secretion from the Golgi apparatus

65
Q

Nucleus

A

In eukaryotic cells

  • house and protect DNA
  • DNA replication and Transcription occur inside the nucleus
66
Q

Nuclear envelope

A

nucleus membrane

  • set of 2 phospholipid bilayers (one inner and one outer)
  • inbetween two bilayers=perinuclear space
67
Q

Nucleoplasm

A

Aqueous medium in the nucleus

-DNA is floating in this

68
Q

Nuclear pores

A

Holes In the nuclear envelope allowing for molecules to travel in and out

69
Q

nuclear lamina

A

associated with the inner membrane of nuclear envelope

  • Provides structural support to the nucleus
  • regulates DNA organization, DNA replication, and Cell division
70
Q

Nucleolus

A

dense regions within the nucleus

  • where rRNA is produced
  • site of ribosomal subunits production
71
Q

Ribosomal subunits

A

contain rRNA and protein

composed in the nucleolus

72
Q

Ribosomes

A

function in protein translation

  • do not contain a membrane
  • NOT organelles
  • both eukaryotes and prokaryotes contain ribosomes

Float freely in the cytosol or attached to the RER

73
Q

Eukaryotic Ribosomes

A

2 subunits:
60S subunit
40S subunit

come together to form the 80S eukaryotic ribosome*
-each subunit produced in the nucleoplasm and come together in the cytosol of the cell

74
Q

RER

A

ribosomes attach to the cytoplasmic side and translate proteins in the lumen

  • undergo modifications
  • ex: glycolsylation attaches a carbohydrate to protein then the glycoprotein heads to the Golgi apparatus
75
Q

role of the SER

A

synthesize lipids (fats), steroid hormones, detoxify cells

76
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Products enter golgi and undergo modifications such as phosphorylation

77
Q

cytoskeleton

A

lies within the cytoplasm of both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

contains:
microfilaments
-intermediate filaments
-microtubules

78
Q

Microfilaments

A

smallest diameter

  • contain a double helix of 2 actin filaments
  • crucial role in cell movement
79
Q

Intermediate filament

A

middle diameter of the 3

  • contain many different types of proteins
  • EX: keratin-skin hair and nails
  • primary role cellular structural support
80
Q

Microtulbules

A

Provide structural integrity

  • hollow tube, walls made up of tubular protein dimers
  • partake in cell division and production of cilia and flagella
81
Q

Tight Junctions

A

proteins juctnios that provide water tight seal b/w cells
-insure that materials must enter the cell to pass through the tissue
Ex; cell linings and digestive tract

82
Q

Desmosomes

A

STAPLES that hole adjacent cells together

-provide mechanical stability and present in tissues subject to mechanical stress

83
Q

Anchor juctions

A

Desmosomes and adhering suctions type of anchor juctnios

84
Q

Gap junctions

A

allow for passage of small ions and small molecules between cells
-ie heart

85
Q

Osmosis

A

simple diffusion mechanism (no energy and does not utilize channel proteins)
-water travels across a semipermeable membrane from areas of LOW TO HIGH SOLUTE CONCENTRATION (high to low water concentration)

86
Q

Isotonic Solutions

A

extracellular and intracellular enviroments have the same solute concentration
-animal cells prefer

87
Q

Hypertonic SOlution

A

solute concentration outside the cell is high

  • water will leave the cell via osmosis to attempt to lower solute concentration
  • LOSS OF FLUID causes the cell to shrivel

Cells in this solution undergo PLASMOLYSIS(shrinkage of cytoplasm from water loss away from cell wall)

88
Q

Hypotonic Solution

A

If the solute concentration is lower outside the cell than inside the cell

  • water from external environment will travel into cell
  • animal cell will swell and eventually burst in a process called Cell lysis
89
Q

Exergonic Reactions

A

release energy

90
Q

Endergonic reactions

A

require energy

91
Q

ATP

A
  • unstable RNA nucleoside triphosphate
  • ATP =hydrolysis reactions are exergonic (release energy) and spontaneous
  • reaction coupling links unfavorable reactions with favorable ones
92
Q

Mitochondria

A

powerhouse of the cell

-make ATP through cellular respiration (Catabolic process)

93
Q

Endosymbioitic theory

A

aerobic bacteria were internalized as mitochondria whale photosynthetic bacteria became chloroplasts
-evidence=size similarities and mitochondria and chloroplast contain their own circular DNA and ribosomes

94
Q

Glycolysis

A

converts 6C glucose into 3C pyruvate

  • only pathway in aerobic glycolysis that does not require oxygen=aneorobic process
  • occurs within the cytosol of the cell
  • STEPs 1-5=energy investment phase
  • STeps 6-10=energy payoff phase

4 ATP produced, 2 ATP invested= 2ATP net gain

95
Q

Oxidation of Pyruvate in Mitochondria

A

1) Carboxyl group is removed from Pyruvate releasing CO2
2) NAD+ is reduced to NADH
3) acetyl group is transferred to coenzyme A=Acetyl CoA

Enzyme: Pyruvate Dehydrogenase complex

96
Q

Krebs cycle: where does it occur in eukaryotes vs prokaryotes?

A

Eukarhotes=Mitochonrial matrix

Prokaryotes=Cytosol

97
Q

What does the Krebs cycle produce?

A

2 CO2
3NADH
1FADH2
1 GTP

FUCK (3 decks)

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