Problem 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Conditional reasoning

A

Refers to reasoning with “if”

ex.: (P) If “it is raining”, (Q) then “ Nancy gets wet”

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2
Q

Propositional logic

A

Refers to a proposition or statement that is a sentence which is either true or false

–> doesnt admit any uncertainty about the truth

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3
Q

Modus tollens

(Conditional reasoning)

A

Is a rule of logic which states that if A = (should be) B, but B is false, then A is false

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4
Q

Why do people often make mistakes in conditional reasoning ?

A
  1. Great influence by contextual info that is irrelevant to logical info
  2. Background knowledge
  3. Number of available counterexamples will make one less willing to accept conditional inferences
  4. Low WM capacity
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5
Q

There are 2 processing systems individuals will use to solve conditional reasoning Problems.

S1 being rapid + automatic vs S2 being slower + demanding

What are the 4 major processing strategies identified (Bonnefant et. al) ?

A
  1. Pragmatic (1)
  2. Semantic (1)

–> using background knowledge

  1. Inhibitory (2)

–> inhibiting pragmatic + semantic strategy performance

  1. Generative (2)

–> combining inhibitory strategy with analytic processing

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6
Q

Wason selection task

A
  1. Is a task where 4 cards are lying on the table
  2. Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other
  3. A rule applies
  4. Task is to select only those cards that would need to be turned over to decide whether or not the rule is correct
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7
Q

Matching bias

A

Refers to the tendency for participants to select cards matching the items named in the rule regardless of whether the matched items are correct

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8
Q

Indicative rule

A

Suggests that if there is a P, then there is a Q

–> concerned with the conformation of the rule

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9
Q

Deontic rule

A

Suggests that if there is a P, then you MUST do Q

–> concerned with the detection of rule violation

–> should be used on Wason selection task

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10
Q

Social contract theory

A

Is the view that people have rules maximizing their ability to achieve their goals in social situations

ex.: One will be able to travel by train (b), when one has bought a ticket (c) = social contract

–> explains why deontic rules lead to superior performance

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11
Q

What kind of role does “cheating” play in the social contract theory ?

A

Cheating means we have fulfilled our side of the bargain but failed to have received the agreed benefit

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12
Q

Why do a lot of people produce incorrect answers when doing the Wasons selection task ?

A
  1. Use of simple strategies
  2. Not understanding fully what the task involves

–> should use deontic rules

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13
Q

Syllogism

A
  1. Consists of 2 premises/statements, which are followed by a conclusion
  2. The validity of the conclusion always depends on the premises
    ex. :All children are obedient, all girl guides are children, therefore all girl guides are obedient
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14
Q

Why do people often make errors in syllogistic reasoning ?

A

Due to the existence of certain biases, but most importantly belief bias

–> meanings of words + expressions in formal logic differ significantly from meanings in everyday life

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15
Q

Belief bias

A

A tendency to accept invalid conclusions if they are believable + rejection valid conclusions when they are unbelievable

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16
Q

Mental model theory

A

States that people use information of a statement/premises to construct a mental model

–> successful thinking results from the use of appropriate mental models

17
Q

Principle of truth

A

We construct mental models that represent explicitly only what is true, and not what is false

–> thereby minimize the load on WM

18
Q

What is peoples ability to construct mental models constraint by ?

A

By the limited capacity of WM

19
Q

Limitations on the Mental model theory ?

A
  1. People find deductive reasoning difficult, therefore engage in less effortful forms of processing than assumed
  2. Processes involved in forming mental models are underspecified
  3. Ignores individual differences
20
Q

Heuristic-Analytic theory of reasoning (Evans)

(Dual Systems model)

A
  1. If someone is presented with a reasoning problem heuristic processes (intuitive) construct a mental model by using background knowledge etc

–> autonomous, fast, no WM required

  1. Analytical processes may or may not intervene to revise or replace model

–> deliberative, slower, WM required

21
Q

Human reasoning (according to the dual systems model) is based on the use of 3 principles.

Which ones are those ?

A

1. Singularity principle

–> a single mental model is considered

2. Relevance principle

–> most relevant mental model based on prior knowledge + context is considered

3. Satisficing principle

–> current mental model is evaluated by analytic processes

22
Q

When will belief bias be stronger, considering the dual systems model ?

A
  1. When only heuristic processes are used
  2. Time is strictly limited so it is difficult to use analytic processes
23
Q

Secularization hypothesis

A

Suggests that over the course of history, with more widespread access to formal education and technology a focus on natural explanations will increasingly compete with and displace supernatural explanations

–> consistent with finding that _children gradually abandon a belief in supernatural causatio_n as they grow

24
Q

Natural explanations

A

Refer to explanations that appeal to observable + empirically verifiable phenomena of the physical world

25
Q

Supernatural explanations

A

Refer to explanations that appeal to phenomena that violate, operate outside of, or are distinct from the natural world

26
Q

Explanatory coexistence

A

Refer to domains of human experience in which both natural + supernatural explanations are frequently generated to interpret the same events

–> human origins, death, illness

27
Q

Which properties do the 3 domains share, that make them suitable to explanatory accounts, that incorporate both natural + supernatural reasoning ?

e.g.: human origins, death, illness

A

Each phenomenon

  1. can be attributed to unobservable causal agents
  2. is associated with strong emotions
  3. is embedded in specific cultural scripts that coexist alongside current scientific understanding

–> BUT: they may vary across diverse cultural contexts

28
Q

Why is it important to do cross-cultural research on explanatory coexistence ?

A
  1. Current research is unique to western culture
  2. It could shed light on the universality + cultural specify of the domains
29
Q

Which explanatory frameworks do individuals use when using both natural + supernatural explanations?

A
  1. Synthetic thinking
  2. Target - dependent thinking
  3. Integrated thinking
30
Q

Synthetic thinking

A

Refers to a loose integration of natural + supernatural frameworks without in-depth consideration of how they might interact

31
Q

Target dependent thinking

A

Refers to cases in which N+SN explanations are used to account for distinct aspects of a given phenomenon + involves different kinds of causality

ex.: Death –> N: Cessation of bodily functions –> SN: Continued functioning of the spirit/soul

32
Q

Integrated thinking

A

Occurs when explanations become well-coordinated

–> N+SN explanations are used to interpret multiple levels of causality

ex.: Natural selection = proximate cause

God = Ultimate cause

33
Q

A new hypothesis suggests that analytic thinking (S2) promotes religious disbelief.

Which findings support this hypothesis ?

A
  1. Intuitive cognitive processes facilitate + support the belief in supernatural agents

–> bears meany hallmarks of System 1 processing (heuristics)

  1. Therefore, analytic thinking (S2) may undermine intuitive support for religious belief
34
Q

Analytical vs intuitive thinking.

What are the differences ?

A
  1. Analytical thinking may override out intuitions, gut feelings or instincts

–> more skeptical about paranormal concepts

  1. Intuitive thinking is the key to understanding beliefs + behaviors
35
Q

Modus ponens

(Conditional reasoning)

A

Is a rule of logic which states that if A = B and A is correct then B is correct.

36
Q

What are the approaches to studying reasoning ?

A
  1. Componential
  2. Rules/heuristic
  3. Mental