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GRE Psych Subject Test > Lifespan and > Flashcards

Lifespan and Flashcards

1
Q

Domains of Development:

A 
Physical
Cognitive
Social/Relational
Language/Communication
Emotion/Affect (Regulation of Behavior and Coping)
Expressive (Play and Fantasy)
Moral
Sense of Self/Relation to Reality
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2
Q

Stages theories (step change)

A

Qualitative change
• Emphasized discontinuity
• Period of time with distinct characteristics
• Stability during stage, transition between stages
• Ex: Freud, Erikson, Piaget

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3
Q

Continuous theories (incremental change)

A

Learning theories

• Ex: Bandura

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4
Q

Contemporary Developmental Theories

A
  • Include both stage and continuous aspects of development
  • Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory
  • Lifespan Developmental Theory
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5
Q

Areas of Divergence Amongst Theories

A
  • Active vs. passive person
  • Continuous vs. discontinuous development
  • Nature vs. nurture
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6
Q

Psychoanalytic viewpoint

A

• Freud & Erickson

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7
Q

Learning viewpoint

A

• Watson, Skinner, & Bandura

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8
Q

Cognitive-Developmental Viewpoint

A

• Piaget

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9
Q

Ethological (or Evolutionary) Viewpoint

A

• Gesell, Bowlby & Ainsworth

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10
Q

Ecological Systems Viewpoint

A

• Bronfenbrenner

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11
Q

John Locke

A
  • Tabula rasa
  • “Blank slate”
  • Born with no inborn tendencies or ideas
  • Neither inherently good or bad (how they develop depends on experiences)
  • Children passive role in development
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12
Q

John Locke Learning

A
  • Learn through encounters with others and environment
  • Learn through modeling (not discipline)
  • Embrace individual differences—used to guide learning
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13
Q

Jean Jacques Rousseau

A
  • Innate purity
  • Born with intuitive sense of right and wrong
  • Children active role in development
  • “busy, testing, motivated explore”
  • Children be children first
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14
Q

Jean Jacques Rousseau

A
  • Least restrictive environment

* Natural learning opportunities

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15
Q

Influence of Early Philosophers/Theorists

A
  • Childhood is distinct and important
  • Play is a critical aspect of development
  • Natural learning opportunities and self-exploration key to learning
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16
Q

• Early childhood developmental theorists believed that:

A

• Significance of proper care for the unborn child (Comenius)
• Exploration and play are essential methods by which young children learn (Comenius,
Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel)
• The needs of the child should determine the child’s curriculum (Locke)
• The wisdom in paying attention to the development of the child (Locke)
• Mental development is related to the physical condition of the child, hence the need for
physical activity (Locke. Pestalozzi, Dewey)
• Allow children to be children (Rousseau)
• Direct instruction should come second to real experiences (Rousseau)
• Children should be involved in self-directed activities (Pestalozzi, Froebel, Montessori)
• Children should learn to develop their senses to understand their world (Comenius, Locke,
Rousseau, Froebel,Montessori)
• Education of the child should include the family (Pestalozzi)
• Love, affection and concern for the child is sound educational doctrine (Pestalozzi)
• Instructional materials should be designed with purposes in mind to help children learn.
(Froebel, Montessori)
• Free time and circle time activities should be part of the curriculum for young children
(Locke, Rousseau, Froebel)
• Experiences beyond the classroom are essential (Dewey)
• Time for social interaction is an essential part of the curriculum (Rousseau, Dewey)

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17
Q

Attachment

A
  • A secure base from which to explore (Ainsworth , 1963)
  • A unique relationship between an infant and caregiver—the foundation of future healthy development (Bowlby, 1969, 1982)
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18
Q

Bowlby

A

• Observed children

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19
Q

Ainsworth

A
  • Uganda Project
  • Baltimore Project
  • Strange Situation
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20
Q

• Main

A

• Adult Attachment

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21
Q

• Schaffer and Emerson

A

• Stages of attachment

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22
Q

Attachment Theory

A

• An inherent biological response and behavioral system in place to provide satisfaction of
basic human needs
• In adults construct of how adults remember their own childhood experiences, which can
influence attachment with own children (Mary Main et al., 1985)

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23
Q

Stages of Attachment (Schaffer and Emerson)

A

Asocial
Indiscriminate
Discriminate
Multiple

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24
Q

Asocial

A

(Birth to 6 weeks): Infant prefer humans but no one specific

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25
Q

Indiscriminate

A

(6 weeks to 6 months): Infant begin to show preference for primary and other caregivers

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26
Q

Discriminate

A

(~7 months): Infant shows strong attachment to one specific caregiver (separation anxiety and fear of strangers)

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27
Q

Multiple

A

(~10 months): Infant expands attachment to other caregivers **Individual differences

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28
Q

Attachment Types

A
  • Secure
  • Avoidant/Dismissive
  • Ambivalent/Resistant/Anxious
  • Disorganized
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29
Q

Secure

A

(most infants): caregiver safe base to explore environment; easily soothed; caregiver sensitive to infant/child’s needs

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30
Q

Avoidant/ Dismissive

A

independent, avoids contact with attachment figure when distress; insensitive caregiver or unavailable

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31
Q

Ambivalent/ Resistant/ Anxious

A

anxious during separation but upon reunification rejects

and seeks caregiver; caregiver inconsistent with interactions

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32
Q

Disorganized

A

child responds to caregiver’s return with odd behaviors; associated with early abuse and highly correlated with mental health

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33
Q

Internal Working Model

A
  • Through 4 phases of attachment develop IWM of expectations of attachment figures
  • Availability
  • Likelihood to provide support during stress
  • Guides future close relationships
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34
Q

Attachment Theory—Understanding the Essential Bond

A

• In 1958, psychologist John Bowlby pioneered “attachment theory,” the idea that the early bond between parent and child is critical to a child’s emotional development. Since then, scientists have discovered that insecure attachment during formative years can significantly stress both the developing brain and body, resulting in long-term psychological and physical ailments. For example, low levels of attachment security have been linked to diminished levels of cortisol, a steroidal hormone released in response to stress that is critical in reducing inflammation in the body. Higher levels of attachment security correlate with more normal cortisol responses. When their caregiver leaves the room, insecurely attached children may not cry out but still experience physiological distress that may not be alleviated when the parent returns. Securely attached children may cry when their caregiver leaves the room but will be soothed by their caregiver’s return and then move forward with playing/exploring. The depicted intervention is measuring success by child behavior and cortisol levels.

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35
Q

John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Across Generations

A

• Bowlby was influenced by Piaget (cognitive psychology), Lorenz (ethology), and Erikson (psychoanalysis). Early attachment styles produce an immense influence on relationships throughout the lifespan. “A society that values its children should value its parents.”

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36
Q

Attachment Theory: Progress and Further Directions (Week 2 Article)

A
  • Attachment theory makes the bold claim that the causes of variation in attachment security are largely if not entirely environmental, and that caregivers’ sensitivity to infants’ attachment cues and communications is the primary environmental determinant (this is supported by research but with caveats).
  • Attachment might be transmitted, by what are assumed to be environmental mechanisms, from one generation to the next (this is poorly understood but may be a result of parental sensitivity to child’s needs.
  • Security in adulthood is associated with childhood experiences with caregivers (maybe)
  • The evidence broadly supports the idea that secure attachment is associated with better socioemotional outcomes, at least in childhood, but also points to the role of measurement issues, the lack of large main effects, and of some specificity in the insecure subtypes associated with different outcomes.
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37
Q

Who is Piaget?

A
  • Cognitive Development Theory
  • Constructivist theory
  • Stage theory
  • Schemas
  • Assimilation and accommodation
  • Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operations
  • Object permanence
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38
Q

Assimilation

A

Integrating reality on to ones own views.

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39
Q

Accomodation

A

Changing ones own views to better match reality.

40
Q

Equilibration

A

makes balance in assimilation and accommodation.

41
Q

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

A
  • Sensorimotor
  • Preoperational
  • Concrete Operational
  • Formal Operations
42
Q

Sensorimotor

A

(0-2 Years)
• Coordination of senses with motor response, sensory curiosity about world. Language used for demands. Object permanence develops.

43
Q

Preoperational

A

(2-7 Years)
• Symbolic thinking, use of proper syntax and grammar to express full concepts.
• Imagination and intuition are strong. Conservation develops.

44
Q

Concrete Operational

A

(7-11 Years)

• Concepts attached to concrete situations. Time, space, and quantity are understood and applied.

45
Q

Formal Operational

A

(12+)
• Theoretical, hypothetical, and counterfactual thinking. Abstract logic and reasoning.
Strategy and planning become possible. Concepts learned in one context applied to
others.

46
Q

Theories of development: In dialog with Jean Piaget

A

• The constructivist hypothesis that there is a developmental discontinuity between children’s early agent-centered theory of the biological world and their later vitalist theory of biology is well-confirmed by several sources of data. Each of the theories is internally coherent, reliably diagnosable through clinical interviews. The developmental progression from the
agency theory to the vitalist biology unfolds over several years, and some populations, such as individuals with Williams syndrome, never achieve it, despite acquiring vast amounts of factual information about the biological world. The identification of constructivism with conceptual change and the theory–theory of development has allowed developmental cognitive science to go beyond Piaget’s insights, both through systematic work on how evidence is brought to bear on hypothesis confirmation (e.g., Gopnik & Schulz, 2007) and on the characterization and explanation of conceptual change (e.g., Carey, 2009). Furthermore,
the hypothesis that EF development may be the locus of the domain-general changes. Piaget sought in his theorizing about stage changes also derives support from this case study. Even adults draw upon EF in the on-line deployment of vitalist biology. Moreover, the training study just reviewed provides strong evidence that EF is recruited in the processes of construction of a vitalist theory of biology. Although this work is an outgrowth of neoPiagetianism, it proposes a very different view of the nature of stage changes from those
proposed in Piaget’s mature accounts. Most importantly, it locates the domain-general changes in aspects of representational structure and computational mechanisms that are divorced from conceptual content.

47
Q

Zone of Proximal Development

A
  • Distance between person’s ability to perform a task with assistance and their ability to solve it independently.
  • According to Vygotsky, learning takes place in this zone.
48
Q

More Knowledgable Other

A
  • A person with a better understanding or higher ability level than the learner with respect to a particular task, process, or concept
  • Typically a teacher, coach, or older adult
  • Can be peers or younger person
  • Newest MKO’s -> Computers/Technology
49
Q

Mediation

A
  • The intermediary role of others in determining the meaning of signs and symbols, which in turn impact how children think.
  • Learning new knowledge is mediated by surrounding environment and culture.
50
Q

What is Supportive Scaffolding?

A

• Short-term assistance from a person more knowledgable to support the child to perform a
task/activity until they can do so independently.
• Scaffolding entails changing the quality and quantity of support provided to a child in the course of a teaching session. The MKO adjusts the level of guidance in order to fit the student’s current level of performance.

51
Q

Vygotsky Meets Technology: A Reinvention of Collaboration in the Early Childhood Mathematics Classroom

A

• With the advent of Web 2.0, Vygotsky’s traditional role of the more knowledgeable other (MKO) has been transformed. This transformation shifts the power of a facilitator of learning from an elite group of MKOs to all students. Such a transformation possesses significant
value in the early childhood mathematics classroom where collaboration is essential for student learning.
• Students learn from other students online (other cultures, perspectives, etc.).
• Students learn from databases as well as programs or applications.

52
Q

• Piaget and Vygotsky: Many Resemblances, and a Crucial Difference

A

• Although Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories have some similarities, they differ regarding: 1) the origins of development and the motor of development; 2) the relationships among equal peers vs. those based on authorities, as they are sources of development and learning; 3) the more appropriate methods for studying developmental changes; 4) the importance of the distinction between true vs. necessary knowledge; and 5) the role of transformation and personal reconstruction vs. that of transmission and social influence in the phenomena of development and learning.
• Piaget viewed the child as autonomous and responsible for learning whereas Vygotsky viewed
children as being subjected to social influences and authority figures.

53
Q

Theories of Social Development

A

Bandura - Social Learning Theory
• Bronfenbrenner - Bioecological Theory
• Belsky - Evolutionary Theory of Socialization, Psychosocial Acceleration Theory

54
Q

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

A
  • How do we learn?
  • Observational learning
  • Bobo dolls experiment
  • Children learned through observing not reward
55
Q

Factors That Influence Learning

A
  • Motivation
  • Imitation
  • Identification
  • Symbolic Modeling
56
Q

4 Mediating Processes

A
  • Attention
  • Retention
  • Reproduction
  • Motivation
57
Q

Key Terms

A
  • Self-Efficacy
  • Self-Regulation
  • Reciprocal Determinism
58
Q

Beyond Risk, Resilience, and Dysregulation: Phenotypic Plasticity and Human Development

A
  • Individuals have variability in plasticity and resiliency.
  • Optimal vs. adaptive development in the context of adverse childhood environments
  • Fast development in response to adverse conditions (early pregnancy) may have evolutionary advantages
  • Reduced plasticity may mean someone is less receptive to positive experiences as well
  • Genes, temperament, and physiological reactivity are also relevant plasticity factors
59
Q

Fertilization

A

Occurs in the Fallopian tube of the female when a sperm unites with an egg or ovum and travels to the uterus. The zygote then goes through three stages of gestation or prenatal development; Geminal, Embryonic, Fetal

60
Q

Zygote

A

the fertilized ovum

61
Q

Germinal stage

A

lasts two weeks

zygote moves down the Fallopian tube, grows into 64 cells via cell division and implants onto the wall of the uterus.

62
Q

Embryonic Stage

A

Lasts until the end of the second month and consists of organ formation.

63
Q

fetal stage

A

lasts from the third month until birth. Quantitative growth occurs during this time, as well as movement (called quickening).

64
Q

H-Y antigen

A

when present causes testes to form when absent ovaries form.

65
Q

Neonate

A

a newborn. Behavior of newborns is reflexive.

66
Q

sucking reflex

A

elicited by placing an object in the baby’s mouth.

67
Q

head turning reflex

A

elicited by stroking the baby’s cheek.

68
Q

Moro Reflex

A

the throwing out of arms and legs elicited by loud or frightening noises.

69
Q

Babinski reflex

A

the fanning of toes elicited by touching the bottom of the baby’s foot.

70
Q

Palmar reflex

A

the hand grasping elicited by placing an object in the baby’s hand.

71
Q

Piaget Moral Stages 1

A

4-7 Imitates rule-following behavior; does not question acceptance of rules.

72
Q

Piaget Moral Stages 2

A

7-11 understands rules and follows them.

73
Q

Piaget Moral Stages 3

A

12+ Applies abstract thinking to rules; can change rules if all parties agree.

74
Q

Regression

A

A return to an earlier stage.

75
Q

Oral Stage

A

Birth-18 months

Receives pleasure orally through sucking, eating, biting.

76
Q

Anal

A

18 months- 3 years

Receives pleasure with control and release of feces.

77
Q

Phallic

A

3-6

  • Receives pleasure from self-stimulation of genitals.
  • Oedipus complex (boys) Electra complex Penis Envy (girls).
  • Boys are motivated to contain there lust by castration anxiety.
78
Q

Latency

A

Adolescence

-Repressed sexuality; identification with same-sex friends; focus on school and growing up.

79
Q

Genital

A

Adolescence-Adulthood

-Hormones reawaken sexual instincts; love object is now non-familial.

80
Q

Heinz Dilemma

A

a woman is dying and needs expensive medication. The woman’s husband cannot afford the medicine. Should he steal it or let his wife die.

81
Q

Preconventional/Premoral

A

Lawrence Kohlberg
Level 1: should avoid punishment
Level 2: should gain rewards
“If I steal medicine, I’ll get in trouble.”

82
Q

Conventional/ Morality of Conformity

A

Lawrence Kohlberg
Level 3: Should gain approval
Level 4: Should follow law and authority
“Stealing is against the law”

83
Q

Postconventional/ Morality of self-accepted principles

A

Lawrence Kohlberg
Level 5: beyond the black and white of laws; attentive to rights and social welfare.
Level 6: makes decisions based on abstract ethical principles.
“It is unjust that money is an obstacle to life. It is ethical that I save my wife.”

84
Q

trust v. mistrust

A

Birth-18mos

Resolution = trust

85
Q

autonomy v. shame and doubt

A

18 mos-3 yrs

Resolution = independence

86
Q

initiative v. guilt

A

3-6 yrs

Resolution = purpose

87
Q

industry v. inferiority

A

6-puberty

Resolution = competency

88
Q

identity v. role confusion

A

teen years
give rise to the term identity crisis
Resolution = sense of self

89
Q

intimacy v. isolation

A

young adult

Resolution = love

90
Q

productivity v. stagnation

A

middle age

Resolution= productivity and caring

91
Q

ego integrity v. despair

A

old age

Resolution = wisdom and integrity

92
Q

Authoritarian Parents

A

demanding, affectionate, strict

Children were withdrawn and unhappy

93
Q

Permissive Parents

A

affectionate, but not strict

Children were happy but lacking in self-control and self-resilience.

94
Q

Authoritative Parents

A

affectionate, firm but fair

Children were self-reliant, self-confident, assertive, friendly, happy, high-functioning.

95
Q

symbolic play

A

usually begins when children are 1 to 2 years old and involves pretend roles, imagination, and using objects to represent other things. When children reach this point, it is apparent that they can understand the concept of having one object stand for another.

96
Q

Parallel Play

A

usually occurs when children are 2 to 3 years old. It is when 2 children are standing next to each other and playing in similar styles but are playing by themselves and not interacting with one another.

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