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Britain Transformed 1918-2000 > Post-War Consensus Politics > Flashcards

Post-War Consensus Politics Flashcards

1
Q

What 6 key principles made up consensus politics?

A
  • Government spending (Mixed Economy)
  • Nationalisation of key industries
  • Borrowing- Keynesianism
  • Full employment/Trade Union cooperation
  • Welfare State (esp. NHS)
  • Introduction of nuclear weapons
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2
Q

How did the National Government set the stage for consensus?

A

Proved rival MPs could cooperate + & that a broad agreement on key policies could be reached.

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3
Q

How did the Blitz Spirit set the stage for consensus?

A

Success of collectivism- approach where certain problems are tackled by taken away certain rights for the common good.

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4
Q

How did the war change the role of government and, consequently, set the stage for consensus?

A

State was forced to take more control- Emergency Powers Act of 1940

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5
Q

What change occurred in the economy that set the stage for consensus?

A

Shift from mainly free-market economy to more mixed one, w/rationing, censorship, conscription, the Essential Work Order, all in a bid to engage Britain in total war- by 1945, 1/3 of citizens do war-related work.

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6
Q

How did the Beveridge Report in 1942 set the stage for consensus?

A

It was hugely popular-Labour’s promise to fulfill it was a huge contributing factor in their win. So popular it created ‘sea change’ in politics; rival parties couldn’t ignore its popularity if they wanted to be a part of govt.

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7
Q

How did Clement Attlee’s politicking help Labour win the 1945 General Election?

A
  • Portrayed himself as a ‘man of the people’
  • Churchill = gr8 wartime leader but ppl unsure if he was right leader for peacetime. In WW2, Atlee had managed home front, showing himself and Labour as capable leaders.
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8
Q

How did the Labour Party’s campaigns help them win the 1945 General Election?

A
  • Broke off wartime coalition to force election,
  • ‘Let us face the future’ slogan
  • Posters centred around the ppl- had women or soldiers accompanied by ‘Labour for her/him
  • Atlee spent lot of time touring nation
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9
Q

How did Churchill’s politicking make the Conservatives lose the 1945 General Election?

A
  • Lacklustre campaign focusing on foreign policy- arrogance after war victory- Tory slogan: ‘Let’s finish the job’
  • Speech comparing a post-war labour govt to ‘Gestapo’ seen as distasteful, spiteful.
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10
Q

How did Labour’s policies help them win the 1945 General Election?

A

Promised to implement v.popular Beveridge Report, while Churchill rejected it and didn’t have a clear strategy for postwar recovery; Labour’s manifesto seemed more specific, ambitious, and detailed.

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11
Q

How did the public mood help Labour win the General Election of 1945?

A
  • Public wanted a change after the harsh war years

- Associated Tories w/high unemployment of 20s and 30s and failure of appeasement

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12
Q

Which key consensus policies were established under the Attlee government of 1945-1951?

A
  • Mixed economy
  • Universal healthcare
  • Full employment
  • Cooperation with trade unions
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13
Q

Developments in education under Attlee

A
  • 1944 Butler Act
  • Improved education- built 900 primaries (for baby boom), 250 secondaries
  • School leaving age raised to 15
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14
Q

Developments in healthcare under Attlee

A
  • 1946 National Health Service Act

- Abolished means-testing

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15
Q

Developments in the mixed economy under Attlee

A

Nationalised coal, steel, iron and railway industries, preventing their collapse.

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16
Q

Developments in general welfare under Attlee

A
  • 1945 Family Allowance Act (child benefits)
  • 1946 National Insurance Act
  • Housing Act 1949- extended local authority’s powers to build public sector housing for all income groups
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17
Q

How popular were the developments made by the Attlee government?

A

Hugely popular w/public, which led to Conservatives 1947 Charter- accepted many of the consensus views: mixed economy, gave commitment that they’d protect labour rights, stressed need for fairness, opposed protectionism.

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18
Q

How did Labour’s own problems make them lose the 1950 and 1951 election?

A
  • Growing dissatisfaction over continued rationing
  • Austerity wasn’t perceived as bringing economic recovery quick enough
  • Standard tax rate at 45%- seen as too high
  • MPs tired, starting to divide after Bevanite revolution (51) + issue over nukes + Korean War, disillusioned.
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19
Q

How did the Conservatives own successes make Labour lose the 1950 and 1951 election?

A
  • Seen as united party, esp. due to nationalisation of iron and steel which impressed the electorate
  • 1947 Industrial Charter showed they were willing to adapt and adopt consensus politics
  • 1950 saw influx of bright young Tories.
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20
Q

What was the name given to the Churchill, Eden, and Macmillan governments 1951-1965?

A

‘13 Golden Years’ of Tory dominance- largely continued the consensus (‘Butskellism’), albeit with minor disagreements and flaws in consensus politics began to show, esp. when it came to economy.

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21
Q

What was Winston Churchill like during his 1951-1955 government?

A
  • 77 years old in poor health
  • Lacked passion and drive of war years
  • Retired.
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22
Q

What was Anthony Eden like during his 1955-1957 government?

A
  • Young
  • Popular
  • Aristocratic
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23
Q

Why did Anthony Eden have to resign in 1957?

A

Suez Crisis:

  • Britain agreed to invade Suez canal zone w/France and Israel to protect it from Egypt President Nasser
  • US hadn’t been consulted; furious Eisenhower forced UN resolution imposing ceasefire, refused to loan to Brits
  • Britain forced to pull out and Eden was humiliated
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24
Q

What was Harold Macmillan like during his 1957-1964 government?

A
  • Cheerful, confident
  • Nicknamed Supermac
  • Increased Tory majority in 59 election to 49.4% of vote
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25
Q

What happened in 1959 that showed cracks in the consensus?

A

Chancellor, Treasury Minister, and Financial Secretary resigned- believed govt. spending too much; thought inflation was bigger problem than unemployment, wanted spending cuts, tax rises, and end of subsidies.

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26
Q

Developments in Education under Macmillan’s government of 1957-1964

A
  • 6,000 new schools, 11 new unis + existing ones expanded (as suggested by 1963 Robbins Report)
  • Allowed local authorities to set up comprehensive schools if they wanted
  • 10 Technical schools (for further study) were set up
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27
Q

Developments in Housing under Churchill’s government of 1951-1955

A
  • Tories made commitment to 300k new houses a year, which they achieved- 1953: 327k built, 1954: 354k built
  • 1952- Housing subsidy increased from £25 to £35- supported by Butler
  • Mortgages were to be more readily available
  • Still 80% of house building was state
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28
Q

Reversals of wartime policies under Churchill’s government of 1951-1955

A
  • Iron and steel largely denationalised in 1953
  • Wartime rationing ended in 1954
  • These had the support of the people
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29
Q

Developments in Health under Macmillan’s government of 1957-1964

A
  • 1959 Mental Health Act- Modernised treatment to be humane- improved work of NHS
  • 1962 plans unveiled for 90 new hospitals to be built within next 10 years
  • No changes made to Bevan’s NHS- it continued to grow
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30
Q
  1. How much did welfare state expenditure grow in the post-war consensus?
  2. What was ‘Butskellism’?
A
  1. 16.1% of GDP in 1951, 19.3% in 1964
  2. Merged names of Tory Chancellor R.A Butler and Labour leader Hugh Gaitskell; coined to describe almost identical economic policies of the two parties
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31
Q

What was ‘the Night of the Long Knives’ in 1962?

A

Satirical name given when Macmillan sacked 7 MPs of cabinet, replaced them w/younger ones. Meant to make govt. look stronger, less aristocratic; backfired- to Press and public Mac seemed ruthless.

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32
Q

Developments in international politics during the 13 Golden Years

A
  • Leading member of UN and NATO by 1964

- Developing closer ties to USA- involved in Test Ban Treaty Talks, 1963

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33
Q

Developments in quality of life during the 13 Golden Years

A
  • Wages rose by 72%
  • Families ate better, had more consumer + luxury goods- Consumer spending rose by 45%
  • By 1964, 91% owned a TV
  • Car ownership quadrupled to 8M by 1964
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34
Q

Developments in industry during the 13 Golden Years

A
  • Unemployment <2%

- Subsidies to help modernise and support Brit farming

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35
Q

In terms of the economy, what is evidence that the 13 Golden Years weren’t so golden?

A
  • Economic growth relatively low- 2.4% vs 5.6% in Italy and 5.1% in Germany
  • Share of world exports in manufactured goods: 25.5% in 1951 to 13.9% by 1964
36
Q

In terms of industry, what is evidence that the 13 Golden Years weren’t so golden?

A
  • Lowest productivity in W. Europe
  • Failure to tackle 3/4% inflation for fear of increasing unemployment
  • Lack of investment in manufacturing. Germany and Japan did better in these years
37
Q

In terms of the government, what is evidence that the 13 Golden Years weren’t so golden?

A
  • 1964: Labour inherited a balance of payments deficit of £750M
  • British application to join the European Economic Community vetoed (one cause of decline in Tory dominance)
38
Q

In terms of education, what is evidence that the 13 Golden Years weren’t so golden?

A
  • Our economic rivals sent more young people to uni

- Debate over grammar and comprehensive schools and 11+ not resolved and became more problematic after 1970

39
Q

In terms of Stop-Go economics, what is evidence that the 13 Golden Years weren’t so golden?

A
  • Hampered growth- only short term benefit + contributed to build up of inflationary pressure and ‘stagflation’
  • Prevented investments, upset the balance of payments (too many imports)
  • Maintained/regulated health of domestic consumer market- created cost-push inflationary pressure
40
Q

After the 13 Golden Years of Conservative Dominance, when did it begin to end?

A
  • Tory popularity declined by 1962
  • More consumer spending had led to inflation and balance of payments deficit
  • People had become more opposed to the ‘establishment’
  • Profumo affair tarnished Tory image + destroyed Mac’s self-confidence
41
Q

When was Harold Wilson Prime Minister for the first time?

A

‘64-‘70; Led Labour govt; keen to continue the consensus and lead Britain into an era of social and scientific progress but this was undermined by economic problems.

42
Q

What was Harold Wilson like during his first term of being Prime Minister?

A

Appeared the polar opposite of the establishment: state-school educated, normal Yorkshire accent, appeared calm and reassuring (often pictured smoking a pipe). Big believer in scientific progress.

43
Q

What is Harold Wilson’s first term remembered for?

A
  • White heat

- Devaluation

44
Q

What was the Department of Economic Affairs?

A

Created by Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 govt - Run by unreliable and notorious drunk George Brown

45
Q

What did the Department of Economic Affairs (DEA) do?

A

Created ‘National Plan’ in Sept ‘65, hugely ambitious plan to expand the economy, but with no real ideas on how to raise production or exports. Treasury resented competing w/them and two departments wouldn’t cooperate.

46
Q
  1. What was the Ministry of Technology?

2. Why was the Ministry created by Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 government?

A
  1. Created by Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 govt- run by maverick MP Tony Wedgewood
  2. Wilson talked about the ‘white heat of technology transforming Britain’
47
Q

Facts about the Ministry of Technology under Wilson’s 1964-1970 government

A
  • Stifled by lack of funds due to economic issues and cautiousness of party
  • Supported high profile projects eg Concorde (68) and nuclear energy
  • Encouraged British markets to compete in world trade
48
Q

Legislation under Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 government

A

Many liberal reforms:

  • 1965 Race Relations Act
  • 1967 Abortion Act and Family Planning Act
  • 1967 Sexual Offences Act
  • Murder Act 1969
  • 1970 Equal Pay Act
49
Q
  1. Educational reform under Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 government
  2. Economic improvements under Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 government
A
    • New universities and polytechnics built
      - Open University created
  2. By end of 60s Britain had small balance of payments surplus
50
Q

What problems did Harold Macmillan’s government cause Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 government?

A

Left £800M balance of payments deficit- twice what Labour had predicted it’d be

51
Q
  1. What was unemployment like under Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 government?
  2. What was Wilson forced to do to the pound to try to salvage the economy?
  3. What were industrial relations like under Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 government?
A
  1. By end of 60s it had risen- 900,000 by 1964
  2. Devalue it in 1967 from $2.80 to $2.40- lost huge credibility
  3. Union unrest had increased. During the 60s 3.6M days lost to strikes, yet Labour relied on the TU funding and so were unable to resist union demand.
52
Q
  1. What was published under Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 government to try to reduce Trade Union power?
  2. How did Stop-Go economics affect Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 government?
A
  1. Barbara Castle’s ‘In Place of Strife’ White Paper was published but never implemented.
  2. Caused recession and inflation- failure to properly solve the underlying problems of the British economy
53
Q

How did Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 government stick to consensus?

A

Wilson’s ambitious plans to invest in technology show enthusiasm for consensus

54
Q

How did Harold Wilson’s 1964-1970 government stray from consensus?

A
  • Policies of full employment +TU cooperation under strain
  • Economic issues undermined govts ability to go on investing in welfare state. NHs gradually becoming victim of own success; charges abolished in 65 but reinstated in 69 at higher rates than ever due to economic troubles.
55
Q
  1. When was Edward Heath’s government?

2. What is his govt. remembered for?

A
  1. 1970-1974; After the Tory victory in 74 Heath made the first attempt to break with consensus.
  2. U-turn on policy + 3 day working week
56
Q

What was the Selsdon Man speech?

A

Outlined Heath’s ideas, promise of fewer govt. controls, tough approach to TUs, no support for failing inds. Criticised by Wilson as radical + close link to idea of radical free market pressure group, Selsdon Group (hence nickname).

57
Q

How did Edward Heath change the economic policy of the government?

A

Tories cut taxes & spending, ended Wilson’s economic policy, determining that wages should be set by the market (less Keynesianism and more Free Market).

58
Q

Achievements of Edward Heath’s government

A
  • 1971 Industrial Relations Act: limited TU power, very unpopular with Trade Union Congress
  • 1973 Britain finally joined the EEC (precursor to the EU)
59
Q
  1. What happened in 1971-1972?

2. Why did this happen?

A
  1. U- Turn 1971/1972- govt. increase intervention and spending.
  2. Budget of 71 saw income tax cuts + govt spending but economic policy in tatters by end of 71 as inflation spared & production fell due to, in part, lack of govt intervention; unemployment had also risen to 1M by end of 72
60
Q

What did Heath do as part of the U-Turn?

A

Returned to increasing govt controls and prices and incomes and interference in industrial relations. £2.5B pumped into economy in increased pensions, benefits, and tax reductions (a.k.a the Barber Boom)

61
Q

What was the effect of Heath’s U-Turn?

A

Brought unemployment down to 550K by 74, which indicated the Selsdon Man approach had been completely abandoned

62
Q

What were the main problems faced by Heath’s government?

A
  • Unemployment reached 1M by 72
  • 73 Oil Crisis badly affected British economy
  • Miners strike in 1974 forced Heath to implement 3 day work week (and eventually give in to striker’s demands);after this he called election w/slogan ‘Who Governs Britain?’ and lost, demonstrating relative power of Unions compared to Miners.
63
Q

How did Heath’s government stray from consensus politics?

A
  • Selsdon Man shows 1st major shift away w/attempt to break away from full TU cooperation and full employment. Abandoned when govt. pumped £3.5B into economy
  • TU relations in tatters; Industrial Relations Act, 1972 Strike and 1974 Strike prove this.
64
Q
  1. How strong were consensus politics 1974-1979?

2. Who were PMs during this time?

A
  1. Under huge strain and Labour faced significant barriers to upholding the consensus policies.
  2. Harold Wilson 74-76 (resigned); Jim Callaghan 76-79; both remembered for IMF loan and ‘Winter of Discontent (late 70s)
65
Q

What type of government did Labour have in 1974-1979?

A

Slim majority of 3 seats and were forced to rely on Liberal party (a.k.a the Lib-Lab pact).

66
Q

Economic problems faced by Harold Wilson and James Callaghan’s governments

A
  • 1973 Oil Crisis
  • Britain dubbed ‘the sick man of Europe’
  • Abandonment of commitment to full employment
  • Pound devalued
  • 1976 IMF loan
67
Q
  1. 1973 Oil Crisis

2. Abandonment of commitment to full employment

A
  1. After oil prices rose by 70% in 1973 there was a dramatic surge in inflation- over 20%
  2. ‘75: Chancellor Heady abandoned this key consensus policy and embraced monetarism in order to limit inflation and balance the budget
68
Q
  1. Devaluation of the pound under Wilson and Callaghan

2. 1976 IMF loan

A
  1. Record low against dollar in October 1976- $1.56 compared to around $2.00 in 1975
  2. Forced to take out £4B IMF loan to cope w/economic crisis; in return we had to make huge cuts to public expenditure and budget deficit- proposed ~20% budget cut to solve deficit
69
Q

Why did Wilson and Callaghan face industrial unrest?

A

Labour repealed the Industrial Relations Act and replaced it with the ‘Social Contract’- a voluntary prices and wage control agreement- return to corporatism; failed as TU members wanted pay increases.

70
Q

How did the industrial unrest faced by Wilson and Callaghan manifest?

A

Winter of Discontent 78-79: After wage freeze (condition of IMF loan) public service workers went on strike; rubbish left uncollected, staff walked out of kid’s hospitals and corpses left unburied.

71
Q

How did the British press react to the Winter of Discontent?

A

Tabloids exaggerated and sensationalised the strike, causing public opinion ot turn decisively against TUs and Labour for failing to stand up to the TUs.

72
Q

How was consensus politics abandoned 1974-1979?

A
  • Consensus policies were almost impossible to maintain due to economic issues, huge cuts to public spending
  • Callaghan + Chancellor Heady ditched Keynesian economics
  • Unemployment rose to 1.6M in 78
73
Q

How did the IMF crisis exacerbate the end of consensus politics?

A

IMF crisis reinforced change in policy orientation away from full employment and social welfare to control of inflation and expenditure

74
Q

What did Callaghan say in a speech that confirmed the end of consensus politics?

A

“We used to think that you could spend your way out of a recession and increase employment by cutting taxes and boosting government spending… That option no longer exists.” Also said Britain must ‘pay its way’ in the world.

75
Q

What marked a decisive end to the post-war consensus?

A

Margaret Thatcher’s landmark victory in 1979

76
Q

What was the ‘Social Contract’ actually proposing?

A

In return for not pursuing excessive wage claims, the government would offer subsidies to the cost of living.

77
Q

Summarise the main achievements of Clement Attlee’s government

A
  • Nationalised key industries eg coal mining, shipbuilding and the railways.
  • Creation of a Welfare State through social + healthcare reforms.
78
Q

Why couldn’t living standards increase during the so-called ‘Austerity Years’ of 1945-1951?

A

Even tho war was won Britain kept having to make sacrifice eg Labour govt had to maintain Austerity due to its commitments to building a Welfare State. Meanwhile, it was pretty much bankrupted by the war. The UK owed billions to the USA.

79
Q

Why was there not enough sensible investment in a peacetime economy under Attlee’s government?

A

Military spending abroad (eg in Korea) needed to continue due to UN alliance–>underinvestment in manufacturing and Britain couldn’t build up a competitive industry, compared to manufacturing booms in countries like Germany and Japan.

80
Q

What was the effect of continued rationing until 1951?

A
  • Ppl diverted from consumerism
  • Daily Mail: the “most unpopular policy in the history of the British isles”.
  • Furniture also rationed- ordered to be built with as little wood as possible; links back to strain on manufacturing due to reality of Austerity
81
Q

What was a positive side effect of the pressure on manufacturing and design during the Austerity years of 1945-1951?

A

Led govt to build prefab housing which included wooden walls and flat roofs. This gave people homes quickly.

After 1951 though the concept of “blocks of flats” began to appear: The Lansbury Park estate in Poplar was the first.

82
Q

Summary of the Developments under the 13 Golden Years of Conservative Dominance (1951-1964)

A
  • Growth of the affluent society.
  • Continued investment in welfare/housing, but Stop-Go economics created silos of wealth in Britain. built up inflation as future issue.
  • Balance of Payments was worse than what Labour was expecting when Wilson took over as PM in 1964. £800M deficit.
  • National Incomes Commission set up to regulate wage demands, unsuccessful- TU unrest grew.
83
Q

Summary

A

Balance of payment deficits caused by problems linked to Stop-Go economics meant the pound had to be devalued by 14% in 1967.
Attempts to solve Industrial problems failed (“In Place of Strife” was rejected in 1969).
Government saw more success in a social transformation of the country and passed laws which represented a substantial policy of liberalisation.

84
Q

What was the National Incomes Commission set up by Macmillan’s Tory government in 1962?

A

Set up as a way to regulate wage demands but it was unsuccessful and TU unrest worsened in this period

85
Q

How was the PWC around welfare based on generational attitudes more than anything else?

A

Macmillan=committed to idea that there should be no return to poverty of pre-war years + wealthy had obligation to the poor.

In 50s/60s, very few Tories called for reduced welfare spending.

By 70s, generational shift: New Right Thinking- challenged extent of welfare provision but gen support of NHS persisted.

86
Q

During the 1950s onwards a form of demand-side ecnomics was used to manage the economy called ‘Stop-Go Economics’. What was it?

A

Stop phase: Govt would deliberately slow growth of economy when it was reaching full capacity by raising taxes and cutting govt spending as two main ways of reducing demand.

Go phase: When economic activity had reduced and the balance of payments was more level, taxes would be cut to stimulate demand.

Britain Transformed 1918-2000 (20 decks)

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