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Human Structure and Function 2 > 3 (22) The Respiratory System > Flashcards

3 (22) The Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

Define respiration.

A

the entire process of exchanging gases between the atmosphere and body cells

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2
Q

What is external respiration?

A

exchange of gases between the air in the lungs and the blood

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3
Q

What is internal respiration?

A

exchange of gases between the blood and body cells

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4
Q

What is cellular respiration?

A

the use of O2 and production of CO2 by cells of the body

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5
Q

What is another term for ventilation?

A

breathing

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6
Q

Why (chemically speaking) do we need oxygen?

A

oxygen is needed to burn the fuel [sugars and fatty acids] in our cells to produce energy

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7
Q

What are the parts of the upper respiratory tract?

A

nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx

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8
Q

What are the parts of the lower respiratory tract?

A

larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, lungs

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9
Q

For the nose, identify: bridge, dorsum nasi, apex, external nares, alae.

A

check it out in a picture

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10
Q

What type of cartilage is found in the nose area?

A

primarily composed of HYALINE CARTILAGE, which is densely packed with collagen, a structural protein

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11
Q

What bones form the nasal cavity?

A

the paired nasal, maxilla, palatine and lacrimal bones, as well as the unpaired ethmoid, sphenoid, frontal and vomer bones

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12
Q

What are the structures of the nasal cavity, and how do they help to warm, moisten and filter the air we breathe?

A
  • nasal conchae (superior, middle, inferior)
  • nasal meatus (groove inferior to each nasal conchae)
  • lamina propia (mucus/serous glands; secretes watery mucus and lysozyme),
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13
Q

What are vibrissae, and what are they good for?

A

stiff hairs act as filters that become coated with mucus, they catch particles

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14
Q

What is another function of the nasal cavity?

A
  • warm, moisten and purify inspired air
  • olfaction
  • resonance
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15
Q

What are the three divisions of the pharynx?

A

nasophraynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

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16
Q

What types of epithelium do we find in each of these regions, and how does that relate to the function of each section?

A

nasopharynx - pseudo-stratified ciliated columnar epithelium (good for respiration)
oropharynx/laryngopharynx - nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium (digestion and respiration)

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17
Q

What are the functions of the larynx?

A

passage of air in/out of lungs, prevents foreign objects entering trachea, contains vocal cord for speech

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18
Q

What are the nine cartilages which make up the larynx?

A

all are HYALINE CARTILAGE

  • thyroid cartilage w/ laryngeal prominence
  • ring-shaped cricoid cartilage (end of larynx)
  • epiglottis (ELASTIC CARTILAGE)
  • paired arytenoid, cuneiform, corniculate
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19
Q

What is the function of the “false vocal cords”?

A

plays a major role as a barrier to the entry of food or large foreign objects into the respiratory tract

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20
Q

How do the true vocal cords differ from the false?

A
  • true vocal folds are the more inferior and are where sound is actually produced
  • false vocal folds are a pair of thick folds of mucous membrane that protect and sit slightly superior to the more delicate true folds
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21
Q

How does the larynx of a male differ from that of a female?

A

“Adam’s Apple”

  • female: more rounded, shorter from front to back, shorter vocal cords
  • male: more “V” shaped, longer from front to back, longer vocal folds
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22
Q

How do we speak?

A
  • true vocal folds produce sound when air is forced across them
  • pitch changed by amount of tension
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23
Q

What is Valsalva’s maneuver? What does it do for the body?

A

“closing of the glottis and contraction of the abdominal muscles”

  • increases intrathoracic and intra-abdominal pressure
  • aids in defecation
  • stabilizes trunk during heavy lifting
  • increases vagal activity
  • slows return of blood to the heart
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24
Q

Describe the trachea. Where is it in relationship to the esophagus, and how do they fit together?

A

“windpipe”

  • extends from larynx to primary bronchi (T5)
  • 20 “C” shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
  • open end of C posterior to allow esophagus to expand in
  • the ridge (carina) => most sensitive areas for triggering cough reflex
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25
Q

What muscle is found in the trachea? What type of epithelium lines it, and what does it do?

A
  • smooth muscle (trachealis muscle)
  • lined with pseudo-stratified ciliated columnar epithelium
  • contracts during coughing to expel mucus
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26
Q

What is the carina?

A

CARINA => the ridge of trachea most sensitive areas for triggering cough reflex

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27
Q

How do the right and left primary bronchi differ? If you inhaled a foreign object, where would it probably end up?

A
  • right primary bronchus is more vertical, shorter, wider

- foreign object would end up in right bronchus

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28
Q

Describe the branching of the bronchi.

A

bronchi begin when the trachea divides to form the right and left main bronchi (the pleural of bronchus)

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29
Q

Describe the branching of the bronchi and bronchioles.

A
  • deeper into the lungs, each bronchus is further divided into FIVE smaller, SECONDARY bronchi, which provide air to the lobes of the lungs
  • the secondary bronchi continue to branch off to form the TERTIARY bronchi, which are further divided into TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES
  • the smallest passageways, called BRONCHIOLES, lead to tiny air sacs (alveoli)
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30
Q

How do you tell the difference between a bronchus and bronchiole?

A
  • the bronchi (or bronchus) are the air passages into the lungs that begin at the end of the trachea
  • the bronchioles are the passageways by which air passes to the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs
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31
Q

What effect does the autonomic nervous system have on bronchioles?

A

walls contain SMOOTH muscle
SYMPATHETIC => dilate
PARASYMPATHETIC => constrict

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32
Q

What are the membranes surrounding the lungs?

A

pleural membranes

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33
Q

How do the right and left lung differ and why?

A

RIGHT => 3 lobes, two fissures, shorter

LEFT => 2 lobes, one fissure, cardiac notch

34
Q

Name the lobes and fissures of each lung.

A

(from superior to inferior)
RIGHT => superior lobe, horizontal fissure, middle lobe, oblique fissure, inferior lobe
LEFT => superior lobe, oblique fissure, inferior lobe

35
Q

What is a bronchopulmonary segment?

A

a portion of lung supplied by a specific segmental bronchus and arteries

36
Q

How does the presence of the mediastinum protect lung function?

A

mediastinum isolates the left and right lung from each other so that they function as two separate chest cavities

37
Q

What two circulations supply the lungs? Are they totally separate?

A

the lungs receive blood from two SEPARATE systems: the BRONCHIAL circulation and the PULMONARY circulation

38
Q

What three types of cells would you find in an alveoli, and what does each do?

A
  • Type I alveolar cells: simple squamous epithelium
  • Type II alveolar cells: secrete alveolar fluid (contains surfactant)
  • alveolar macrophages: “dust cells”
39
Q

What is respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn, and what can be done to help? What should NOT be done and why?

A

“retrolental fibroplasia”
- monitor arterial oxygen > 100 mm Hg
DO: administer surfactant, positive pressure respirator
DON’T: supplemental oxygen, ventilator

40
Q

Describe the alveolar-capillary or respiratory membrane. How is it suited to diffusion?

A

two basement membranes and two laters of cells
- 1/16 the thickness of a RBC
- lots of surface area (70-80 square meters)
GASES DIFFUSE (remember!)

41
Q

Describe the muscles involved in inspiration. Which one is the most important?

A
  • diaphragm, external intercostals = normal muscles of inspiration
  • DIAPHRAGM is most important bc it moves ~75% of air
  • pectoralis minor, sternocleidomastoid = accessory muscles of inspiration
42
Q

How does inspiration occur? How does Boyle’s law explain what is happening?

A
  • air moves depending on a pressure gradient
  • before inspiration, pressure in lungs = pressure of atmosphere = 760 mm Hg
  • inspiration increases the size of the thoracic cavity and decreases pressure
  • BOYLE’S LAW => at a constant temp, the pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume P1V1 = P2V2
  • gases always fill their container
43
Q

How does expiration occur?

A
  • diaphragm and external intercostals relax
  • elastic recoil of stretched elastic fibers and surface tension of the liquid in lungs decreases the lung volume and increases the pressure, forcing air out of the lungs
44
Q

What additional muscles are involved in forced inhalation and in forced exhalation?

A

FORCED INHALATION => the sternocleidomastoid, scalene muscles to lift the upper rib cage even more than in normal breathing
FORCED EXHALATION => contraction of INTERNAL intercostal and ABDOMINAL muscles (mostly obliques, transversus)

45
Q

What is the primary factor which determines the resistance in the lungs? Why is this normally insignificant?

A

PRIMARY FACTOR => friction in respiratory passages

  • greater airway diameter = lower resistance of air flow and vice versa
  • normal, healthy lung, airway = resistance is insignificant because the airway diameters are huge
46
Q

What is lung compliance? What factors affect it?

A

LUNG COMPLIANCE => distensibility (stretchiness) of lung tissue
- factors: elasticity of the lung tissue and surface tensions at air water interfaces (also: deformities of thorax, ossification of costal cartilages, paralysis of intercostal muscles)

47
Q

What is eupnea? Apnea? Dyspnea?

A

EUPNEA => normal, quiet breathing
APNEA => temporary cessation of breathing
DYSPNEA => sensation of painful/labored breathing

48
Q

Define tidal volume.

A

air moved in and out by one respiration, about 500 ml

49
Q

Define inspiratory reserve volume.

A

additional air taken in during maximal inhalation

50
Q

Define expiratory reserve volume.

A

additional air expired during forced exhalation

51
Q

Define residual volume.

A

amount of air left in alveoli after forced expiration that keeps them inflated

52
Q

Define inspiratory capacity.

A

tidal volume (TV) + inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) = inspiratory capacity

53
Q

Define expiratory capacity.

A 
no one ever talks about this one but...
tidal volume (TV) + expiratory reserve volume (ERV) = expiratory capacity
54
Q

Define vital capacity.

A

tidal volume (TV) + inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) + expiratory reserve volume (ERV) = vital capacity (VC)

55
Q

Define total lung capacity.

A

tidal volume (TV) + inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) + expiratory reserve volume (ERV) + residual volume (RV) = total lung capacity (TLC)

56
Q

What is the anatomic dead space?

A

due to conducting parts of system (nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, etc.)

57
Q

How could you estimate a person’s anatomic dead space volume?

A

about equal to ideal weight in pounds expressed in milliliters

58
Q

Be able to calculate minute volume of respiration and the alveolar ventilation rate.

A

minute volume of respiration = tidal volume (TV) * breaths per minute

alveolar ventilation rate = [tidal volume (TV) - dead space] * breaths per minute

59
Q

What is meant by Forced Vital Capacity and Forced Expiratory Volume? How would they change in obstructive and restrictive pulmonary disease?

A

Forced Vital Capacity => deep breath expelled rapidly
Forced Expiratory Volume => amount of air expelled during a specific time of FVC
OBSTRUCTIVE => exhale much less
RESTRICTIVE => exhale 80% or more

60
Q

What is the medullary rhythmicity center, and what does it control?

A

two groups of neurons in the reticular formation within the medulla oblongata involved in establishing or modifying the pattern for breathing

61
Q

Which of the two groups of neurons found in the medullary rhythmicity center controls the normal rate of breathing?

A

the ventral respiratory group (VRG)

62
Q

How is the medullary rhythmicity center influenced by the pontine respiratory center (pneumotaxic area of the pons)?

A

pontine respiratory center interacts with medullary respiratory centers to smooth the respiratory pattern and coordinates transition between inspiration and expiration

63
Q

What is the normal rate of breathing?

A

12-15 breaths per minutes

64
Q

What influences the central chemoreceptors, and how do they respond? The peripheral chemoreceptors?

A

CENTRAL => influenced by concentration of carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen, and pH (increase carbon dioxide and hydrogen)
PERIPHERAL => lower oxygen, increase carbon dioxide, and increase breathing

65
Q

What is hyperventilation and how does it affect blood pH? Why?

A

HYPERVENTILATION => an increase in the rate and depth of breathing that exceeds the body’s need to remove carbon dioxide
- LOSS of carbon dioxide from the body = the pH of blood INCREASES and become more ALKALINE

66
Q

How do temperature and pain affect the breathing rate?

A

high temp = increases breathing rate
low temp = decreases breathing rate
sudden pain = decreases breathing rate
prolonged pain = increases breathing rate

67
Q

What is the normal atmospheric pressure at sea level?

A

760 mm Hg

68
Q

What do we mean by a partial pressure?

A

the pressure that would be exerted by one of the gases in a mixture if it occupied the same volume on its own

69
Q

What is Dalton’s Law? Henry’s Law?

A

DALTON’S LAW => in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases
HENRY’S LAW => the amount of dissolved gas in a liquid is proportional to its partial pressure above the liquid

70
Q

How does the partial pressure of a gas influence its diffusion?

A
  • a gas will diffuse from a higher pressure to a lower pressure down the gradient
  • partial pressure of oxygen is greater in the external environment than in the capillaries, so oxygen diffuses into the capillaries
  • CO2 is much more soluble than O2 in water
71
Q

What happens during external respiration? During internal respiration?

A

EXTERNAL => exchange between air in alveoli and blood

INTERNAL => process of diffusing oxygen from the blood, into the interstitial fluid and into the cells

72
Q

How does the response of the arterioles in the lungs to low oxygen content of the alveoli differ from the response of arterioles elsewhere in the body?

A

under low oxygen content, pulmonary arterioles constrict

73
Q

How does the concentration of CO2 affect the bronchioles?

A

high carbon dioxide levels dilate the bronchioles

74
Q

How is oxygen transported in the blood (be specific).

A

98% of oxygen is bound to the iron in hemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin (rest is dissolved in plasma)

75
Q

How does the binding or the loss of one or more oxygen molecules to hemoglobin affect subsequent bindings or losses?

A

after the first oxygen molecule binds to iron, the hemoglobin changes shape to readily take more oxygen

  • 1 hemoglobin molecule can hold up to 4 molecules of oxygen
  • amount of oxygen on hemoglobin is determined by the partial pressure of oxygen
76
Q

What other factors can influence hemoglobin saturation?

A

increased temperature, carbon dioxide, acid, and BPG all cause hemoglobin to release more oxygen (this is why muscle cells receive more oxygen during exercise)

77
Q

What is the Bohr effect?

A

HbO2 bond weakens and causes oxygen to unload where it is most needed

78
Q

Why is carbon monoxide dangerous?

A

CO binds to iron in hemoglobin more tightly than oxygen

79
Q

What three ways does the blood transport carbon dioxide?

A
  • 7% is dissolved in plasma
  • 23% combines with amino groups of hemoglobin forming carbaminohemoglobin
  • 70% is converted into bicarbonate ions
80
Q

How is MOST of the carbon dioxide transported?

A

conversion of CO2 into bicarbonate ions

81
Q

What is the Haldane effect?

A

the amount of CO2 transported is affected by the partial pressure of oxygen

82
Q

Define functional residual capacity.

A

expiratory reserve volume (ERV) + residual volume (RV) = functional residual capacity (FRC)

Human Structure and Function 2 (13 decks)

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