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HAN 200 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

functions of the skeletal system

A
  • support- framework that supports the body
  • mineral storage- calcium and phosphate
  • blood cell production (hematopoiesis)- in red marrow
  • protection- skull, rib cage, and vertebrae
  • leverage- act as levers to produce movement
  • hormone production- osteocalcin
  • triglyceride (fat) storage- source of new energy
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2
Q

skeletal cartilage

A
  • hyaline cartilage- most abundant skeletal cartilage (articular, costal, respiratory)- caps the bones
  • elastic cartilage- only in ear and epiglottis
  • fibrocartilage- strong with thick collagen fibers, knee meniscus, pubic symphysis and intervertebral discs
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3
Q

appositional growth

A
  • type of cartilage growth
  • cells on the periphery called chondroblasts lay down a fluid matrix on top of existing cartilage
  • adding new layers on top of existing layers
  • width
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4
Q

interstitial growth

A
  • type of cartilage growth
  • grows from within
  • chondrocytes divide within the cartilage and expands
  • growth in length (epiphyseal plates)
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5
Q

axial skeleton

A

bones of the longitudinal axis of the skeleton

  • skull, thorax (ribs), vertebral column
  • 80 bones
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6
Q

appendicular sekelton

A

attach the limbs to the axial skeleton

  • bones of the limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdles
  • 126 bones
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7
Q

classification of bones

A
  • by shape:
  • flat (skull, parietal bone, sternum, ribs)
  • sutural (puzzle piece looking in the head that have no movement, diverse)
  • long (extremedies, fingers)
  • irregular (vertebrae)
  • sesamoid (form in tendons, patella)
  • short (carpel bones, boxy, wrist, tarsel bones)
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8
Q

canal or meatus

A

passage way through bone

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9
Q

process

A

any projection or bump in bone

-usually attachment site for tendons

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10
Q

sinus

A

a chamber within a bone that is normally filled with air

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11
Q

foramen

A

a small, rounded passageway through which blood vessels or nerves penetrate the bone

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12
Q

fissure

A

an elongated cleft or gap in bone

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13
Q

head of a bone

A
  • an expanded proximal end of a bone that forms part of a joint
  • rounded
  • humorous- half rounded head
  • femur- fully rounded ball like -> has neck
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14
Q

tubercle

A

small, rounded projection on the bone

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15
Q

sulcus

A

deep, narrow groove

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16
Q

tuberosity

A

a small rough projection that may occupy a broad area of the bone surface

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17
Q

diaphysis

A

or shaft, the elongated body of a long bone

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18
Q

trochlea

A

-a smooth, grooved articular process shaped like a pulley

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19
Q

condyle

A

a smooth rounded articular process

  • at the end of the bone
  • where another bone might meet and sit inside
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20
Q

tochanter

A

is a large rough projection

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21
Q

neck

A

a narrow connection between the head of the bone and the diaphysis of the bone

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22
Q

facet

A

a small flat articular surface of the bone

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23
Q

crest

A

a prominent ridge in the bone

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24
Q

fossa

A

a shallow depression or recess in the surface of the bone

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25
Q

line

A

a low ridge more delicate than a crest

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26
Q

spine

A

a pointed or narrow process

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27
Q

ramus

A

an extension of a bone that makes an angle with the rest of the structure
-pelvis and jaw

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28
Q

structure of a long bone

A
  • medullary canal down the middle
  • canal filled with yellow bone marrow
  • compact bone around diaphysis
  • spongy bone around the epiphysis
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29
Q

periosteum

A
  • periosteum fibers connect the periosteum to the bone

- go into the compact bone to attach

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30
Q

cells of the bone

A
  • compact and spongy bone contain 4 cell types:
  • osteocytes- mature bone cells
  • osteoblasts- bone forming cells (secrete osteoid)
  • osteogenic cells- bone stem cells (AKA osteoprogenitor cells)
  • osteoclasts- bone resorbing cells
  • bone lining cells- flat cells on bone surfaces
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31
Q

osteoblasts

A
  • surround blood vessels

- osteoblasts secrete matrix (osteoid) -> form lacunae -> matures into osteocyte -> form bone tissue

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32
Q

osteoclasts

A
  • bone resorbing cells
  • erode old bone tissue
  • bones are renewed
  • regeneration
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33
Q

osteogenic cells

A

-produce osteoclasts and osteoblasts

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34
Q

canaliculi

A

-connect osteocyte to osteocyte in each lacunae

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35
Q

osteon

A
  • structural components of compact bone

- in the center of each osteon a central canal where the artery and vein are

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36
Q

circumferential lamellae

A

circles that surround

-growth rings around the central canal

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37
Q

periosteum

A
  • layers that surround the entire bone

- circumference

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38
Q

perforating canals

A

the blood vessels in the bone that move perpendicular

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39
Q

spongy bone

A

-porous internal layer with red or yellow marrow filling the spaces between trabeculae*

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40
Q

bone formation occurs…

A
  1. initial formation in embryo and fetus
  2. growth from infancy through adolescence
  3. remoldeling of bone throughout life
  4. repair of fractures
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41
Q

initial bone formation: embryo and fetus

A
  • first 7 weeks of embryonic development skeleton initially composed of:
  • fibrous membranes of mesenchyme
  • hyaline cartilage
  • during the 8th week of development, cartilage formation and ossification occurs
  • two methods of bone formation
    1. intramembranous ossification (formed directly in the mesenchyme)
    2. endochondral ossification (starts as cartilage and is then replaced by bone)
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42
Q

mesenchyme

A
  • all bones are formed from mesenchyme

- arranged in sheets

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43
Q

intramembranous ossification

A
  • embryonic bone directly formed in the mesenchyme
  • no in between cartilage step
  • flat bones in the skull, jaw, and part of the clavical
    1. development of the ossification center (mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts)
    2. bone matrix (osteoid) secreted and calcifies
    3. trabeculae of woven bone and periosteum form (trabeculae is formed by the weaving of blood vessels and then fuses to form spongy bone)
    4. bone collar of compact bone forms and red marrow appears (red marrow is filling the spaces of the spongy bone)
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44
Q

endochondral ossification

A
  • embryonic bone that starts as cartilage and is then replaced by bone
  • mesenchyme condense into chondroblasts -> secrete matrix -> harden -> cartilage model
    1. bone collar forms around diaphysis of the hyaline cartilage model
    2. cartilage at center of diaphysis calcifies then develops cavities (primary ossification center forms in the diaphysis) -> cartilage is deteriating
    3. periosteal bud invades (primary ossification center) and spongy bone forms
    4. diaphysis elongates and medullary cavity forms
    5. epiphyses ossify, hyaline cartilage remains at articular surfaces (articular cartilage) and epiphyseal (growth) plates (secondary ossificiation centers are in the epiphysis)
  • no medullary cavity is formed around secondary ossification center
  • spongy bone remains at epiphyses
  • the bone starts as hyaline cartilage and at the end it only remains at the epiphyseal (growth) plates and the caps
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45
Q

bone growth: infancy through adolescence

A
  • during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, bone growth in length and thickness
  • growth in length- long bones, interstitial growth from within
  • growth in thickness (diameter)- appositional growth
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46
Q

bone growth in length: infancy through adolescence

A
  • involves two major events at epiphyseal plate:
    1. growth of cartilage on epiphyseal side
    2. replacement of cartilage on diaphyseal side
    3. as bone grows, chondrocytes proliferate on the epiphyseal side of the plate
  • new chondrocytes replace older ones destroyed by calcification
  • cartilage replaces by bone on diaphyseal side
  • as the chondrocytes make cartilage on top the osteoblasts are digesting it and replacing it with bone
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47
Q

bone growth in thickness: appositional growth

A
  • ridges in periosteum create groove for periosteal blood vessle
  • periosteal ridges fuse forming endosteum- lined tunnel
  • osteoblasts in endosteum build concentric lamellae inward forming new osteon
  • bone grows outward as osteoblasts in periosteum build new lamellae
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48
Q

remodeling of bone

A
  • the ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue
  • bone resorption- the removal of minerals and collagen fibers by osteoclasts
  • bone deposition- the addition of mineral and collagen fibers by osteoblasts
  • about 5% of bone mass being remodeled at any given time
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49
Q

factors affecting bone growth and remodeling

A
  1. minerals- mostly calcium and phosphorous
  2. vitamins- vitamin A stimulates osteoblasts, vitamin C for collagen synthesis, vitamin D increases calcium absorption
  3. hormones- IGF’s
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50
Q

abnormalities of bone growth

A 
pituitary condition:
-hyposecretion of growth hormone (GH)
-pituitary dwarfism
hypersecretion of growth hormone
-gigantism
-acromegaly
  • achondroplasia
  • marfan syndrome
  • fibrodyplasia ossificans progressiva
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51
Q

calcium

A
  • 39% of bone is calcium

- 99% of calcium is stored in bone

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52
Q

areas affected by calcium and phosphate regulation

A
  • small intestine
  • bone
  • kidney
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53
Q

hormones regulating calcium ion metabolism

A
  • in reponse to low blood calcium ion levels:
  • parathyroid horomone (PTH) is secreted by parathyroid glands
  • PTH: stimulates
  • increased osteoclast activity
  • kidneys produce calcitriol for Ca reabsorption
  • increased calcium absorbing effects on intestines
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54
Q

hormones regulating calcium ion metaboloism

A
  • in response to high blood calcium levels (rare):
  • calcitonin is secreted by the thyroid gland
  • calcitonin:
  • inhibits osteoclasts
  • decreases ion reabsorption in kidneys
  • decreases calcium ion absorption in intestines
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55
Q

repair of fracture

A
  1. A hematoma forms
  2. fibrocartilaginous callus forms- fibrous tissue and cartilage in between the bone
  3. Bony callus forms (replaced the fibrocartilaginous callus)
  4. Bone remodeling occurs
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56
Q

open (compound) vs. closed fracture

A
  • open (compound)- open end of the bone tears out from the skin
  • closed- fracture is contained in the skin
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57
Q

complete vs. incomplete

A
  • complete- entire width of the bone is broken

- incomplete- not completely broken just cracked

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58
Q

displaced vs. non-displaced

A
  • displaced- two ends of the broken bones arnt lining up -> surgical
  • non-displaced- two ends of the end are lining up -> cast
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59
Q

impacted fracture

A

end of fractured bone driven into other end

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60
Q

pott fracture

A

-fracture of the ankle

distal end of fibula

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61
Q

colles fracture

A
  • fracture of the wrist
    distal end of radius
    -common in young kids
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62
Q

transverse

A

in shaft across long axis

-fracture is in the transverse plane across

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63
Q

comminuted fracture

A
  • bone fragments into three or more pieces

- common in the aged

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64
Q

compression fracture

A
  • bone is crushed
  • crushed vertebra
  • common in porous bones (osteoporotic)
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65
Q

spiral

A

ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone
-sports fracture

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66
Q

epiphyseal

A
  • separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal (growth) plate
  • could cause premature closing of the growth plate
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67
Q

osteomalacia

A
  • disorders characterized by poorly mineralized bone
  • insufficient calcium or vitamin D
  • rickets
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68
Q

osteoporosis

A
  • resorption outpaces deposition

- post-menopausal women- decrease estrogen

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69
Q

pagets disease

A

increase spongy bone in areas where there should be compact

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70
Q

the skeletal system

A
  • bones
  • cartilage
  • joints
  • ligaments
  • 20% of body mass
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71
Q

the skull

A
  • cranial bones
  • facial bones
  • sutures (non-moveable joints):
  • coronal
  • sagittal
  • squamous
  • lambdoid
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72
Q

coronal suture

A
  • separates the anterior to the posterior of the upper part of the skull
  • separates the frontal bone from the paired parietal bone
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73
Q

squamous suture

A

-separates the parietal bone from the temperal bone

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74
Q

sagittal suture

A

separates the left parietal from the right parietal bone

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75
Q

lambdoid suture

A

separates the occipital bone (in the back) from the parietal bone

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76
Q

mandible

A

big bone of the lower jaw

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77
Q

maxilla

A

upper mouth

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78
Q

nasal bone

A

-forms the bridge of the nose

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79
Q

zygomatic bone

A

anterior part of the cheekbone

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80
Q

vertebral column

A
  • 26 bones that surround and protect spinal cord
  • *24 vertebrae: 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar
  • 1 sacrum (5 fused vertebrae)
  • 1 coccyx (4 fused vertebrae)
  • ligaments:
  • anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments
  • ligamentum flavum
  • intervertebral discs
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81
Q

sacrum

A

end of vertebrae

  • triangle shape
  • coccyx (tailbone)-the very end tip
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82
Q

abnormal spinal curvatures

A
  • scoliosis- lateral curvature
  • kyphosis- increased thoracic dorsal curve (hunch)
  • lordosis- increased cervical or lumbar ventral curve (sway back)
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83
Q

disc disorders

A
  • bulging disc

- herniated (prolapsed) disc

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84
Q

hunch back

A
  • kyphosis in the thoracic

- lordosis in the cervical so they can pick their head up and see

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85
Q

verteral spinous process

A
  • the bumps in your spine

- project out posterior

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86
Q

transverse process

A
  • project out laterally in the spine

- two (left and right)

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87
Q

spinal cord

A

-runs in the middle of the spine

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88
Q

cervial vertebrae

A
  • (C1-C7)
  • short spinous process
  • stuby
  • *transverse foramen (hole) in transverse processes
  • C1 (atlas)-> no body, C2 (axis) -> looks different
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89
Q

Thoracic vertebrae

A
  • (T1-T12)
  • long, downward-pointing spinous processes
  • articulate with ribs in posterior
  • they have smooth areas where the ribs articulate or connect with the vertebrae
  • looks like an elephant
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90
Q

lumbar

A

(L1-L5)

  • short, hatchet-shaped spinous processes
  • very large bodies
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91
Q

manubrium

A

-on top of sternum

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92
Q

xiphoid process

A
  • cartilage

- bottom of sternum

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93
Q

true ribs

A
  • 1-7

- cartilage connects them to the sternum

94
Q

false ribs

A
  • 8-12
  • dont have their own separate cartilage connecting them to the sternum
  • they kind of share
95
Q

floating ribs

A
  • 11, 12

- dont connect to the sternum

96
Q

appendicular skeleton

A
  • pectoral (shoulder) girdle
  • clavicle
  • scapula
  • upper limb: arm, forearm and hand
  • pelvic (hip) girdle
  • ilium
  • pubis
  • lower limb: thigh, leg and foot
97
Q

pectoral girdle

A
  • acromion in the scapula forms an articulation with the clavicle -> acromioclavicular joint
  • glenoid cavity- ball and socket joint
98
Q

forearm

A

-radius and ulna

99
Q

wrist and hand

A
  • two rows of 4 short bone
  • trapezium connects to the thumb
  • metacarpel bones
  • phalanges- fingers- distal, middle, proximal
100
Q

sacrum

A
  • illium- big elephant ears
  • pubis- anterior part of the pevlic bone
  • ischium- comes in contact with seat when you sit
  • pubic synthesis- area of cartilage that separates pubic bones
101
Q

leg

A
  • fibula- lateral

- tibia- anterior

102
Q

foot

A
  • tarsal bones
  • metatarsal
  • phalanges
  • calcaneus- heel
103
Q

cleft pallete

A

when bone dont fuse when they are supposed to

104
Q

development of spinal curves

A
  • at birth, only thoracic and sacral (primary) curves are present (convex posteriorly)
  • cervical and lumbar (secondary) curvatures develop in childhood (convex anteriorly)
  • cervical curve- when baby starts lifting head
  • lumbar curve- baby begins to walk (12th mo.)
  • scoliosis, hyper lordosis/kyphosis school years
  • hip dysplasia- loose ligaments, shallow socket (femur to plevis)
105
Q

joint classification

A
  • joints are classified in two ways:
    1. structurally- based on their anatomical characteristics (material that binds ones together and presence or abence of joint cavity)
    2. Functionally, based on the type and amount of movement they permit
106
Q

structural classification of joints

A
  • structural classification is based on 2 criteria:
    1. presence or absence of a space between the articulating bones, called a synovial cavity (space)
    2. type of connective tissue that binds the bones together
  • there are 3 structural classifications of joints:
  • fibrous joints
  • cartilagenous joints
  • synovial joints
107
Q

functional classification of joints

A
  • functional classification relates to the degree of movement they permit
  • there are 3 functional classifications of joints
  • synarthrosis- immoveable joint
  • amphiarthrosis- slightly moveable joint
  • diarthrosis- freely moveable (all are synovial)
108
Q

synarthrosis

A 
-no movement
FIBROUS
-suture- skull
-gomphosis- teeth
CARTILAGINOUS
-synchondrosis- connection of 1st pair of ribs and sternum
BONY FUSION
-synostosis- growth plates
109
Q

amphiarthrosis

A 
-little movement
FIBROUS
-syndesmosis- ligament
CARTILAGINOUS
-symphysis- pubic bone
110
Q

diarthrosis

A
  • free move

- synovial

111
Q

synovial joint

A
  • articular cartilage- layer of hyaline cartilage that remains and caps the ends of the bones
  • joint capsule- encapsulates the joint/ fluid
  • synovial fluid- lubricates the joint
112
Q

synovial fluid

A
  • lubrication of the joint
  • nutrient distribution- cartilage is avasuclar so the fluid can act as a medium to transport nutrients
  • shock absorption- cushions shock in joints that are subjected to compression
113
Q

Accessory structures of the synovial joint

A
  • bursa- fluid filled sacs, cushion
  • fat pad- in between structures to cushion
  • meniscus- knee- fibrocartilage for extra cushion in between tibia and fibula
  • extracapsular ligament- ligaments outside the joint capsule that help stabilze
  • intracapsular ligament- ligaments that crossover
114
Q

nerve and blood supply: synovial joints

A
  • synovial joints contain many nerve endings to the aritcular capsule and associated ligaments-> pain and stretch (ex. patellar reflex)
  • arterial branches penetrate ligaments and capsule to deliver oxygen and nutrients directly
  • chondrocytes receive oxygen and nutrients from synovial fluid derived from blood
115
Q

clinical correlation: sprain/strain

A
  • sprain- ligament injury
  • strain- tendon/muscle
  • PRICE:
  • protection
  • rest
  • ice
  • compression
  • elevation
116
Q

bursae & amp: tendon (synovial) sheaths

A
  • bursae- sac-like structure that alleviates friction in joints, filled with synovial-like fluid
  • tendon (synovial) sheaths- tube-like bursae that wrap around certain tendons-reduce friction
  • visceral layer- inner layer attached to tendon
  • parietal layer- outer layer attached to bone
117
Q

types of movement of synovial joints

A
  • gliding- two flat surfaces, back and forth
  • angular- moves at different angles from one point
  • circumduction- swinging your arm in a circle
  • rotation- flipping over your hand
118
Q

factors that affect stability and ROM at synovial joints

A
  • structure or shape of the articulating bones
  • strength and tension of the joint ligaments
  • arrangement and tension of the muscles
  • contact of soft parts
  • hormones
  • disuse
  • more movement, less stability
119
Q

gliding movement at synovial joints

A
  • flat bone surfaces move side to side
  • no alteration of joint angle
  • limited in range due to articular capsule and ligaments
  • intercarpal and intertarsal joints
  • ex. flat surfaces of the carpal bones -> moving your hand left and right from the wrist
120
Q

angular movement at synovial joints: flexion, extension, hyperextension

A
  • flexion- making the angle smaller (chin to chest) (sagittal plane)
  • extension-increasing the angle (lifting up your chin)
  • hyperextension- going past midline or 180 degrees (lifting chin past midline)
  • ex. lifting arm up in front of you (flexion) bringing it back down (extension) bring it back behind you (hyperextension)
  • ex. bending your hand down at the wrist (flexion) pointing your hand up (extension) bending your hand farther back (hyperextension)
    ex. leaning to one side (flexion) standing upright (extension)
121
Q

angular movement at synovial joint: abduction and adduction

A
  • abduction- movement away from the midline
  • adduction- movment towards the midline
  • ex. Shoulder joint- moving arm up to the side (abduction) and moving it back down to your side (adduction)
  • ex. Hip joint- lifting you leg up to the side (abduction) lowering it back down to your side (adduction)
  • ex. metacarpal- separating your fingers (abduction) putting them together (adduction)
122
Q

circumduction at synovial joints

A
  • moving in a circle in space
  • ex. shoulder joint- swinging your arm in a circle
  • ex. hip joint- moving you leg in a circle
  • ex. cervical spine- moving your head in a circle
123
Q

rotational movement at synovial joints

A
  • flipping movement
  • ex. atlanto-axial joint- shaking your head “no”
  • ex. shoulder joint- touching your belly (medial/internal rotation) rotating your arm outward at a right angle (lateral/external rotation)
  • ex. hip joint- laying down with one knee bent, bring bent leg towards other leg (medial rotation) bring bent leg outward (lateral rotation)
124
Q

special movement at synovial joints

A
  • Temporomandibular (jaw)- smile (elevation) open mouth (depression)
  • Temporomandibular joint- jaw outward (protraction) jaw inward (retraction)
  • intertarsal joint- turning the sole of one foot towards the other (inversion) turning the sole of your foot away from the other (eversion) -> ankle sprains -> inversion more common
  • ankle joint- moving foot upward or walking on heels (dorsiflexion) moving foot downward or walking on balls of feet (plantar flexion)
  • redioulnar joint- turning hand palm upward (supination) turning hand palm downward (pronation)
  • carpmetacarpal joint- touching your thumb to other fingers (oppostion)
125
Q

types of synovial joints

A
  • synovial joints are divided into 6 sub-categories based on type of movement
    1. plane (gliding) joints- nonaxial movement
    2. hinge joints- uniaxial
    3. pivot joints- uniaxial
    4. condylar (ellipsoid) joints- biaxial
    5. saddle joints- biaxial
    6. ball and socket joints- multiaxial
126
Q

plane (gliding) joints

A
  • need two flat surfaces

- between carpal or tarsal bones and intercarpal and intertarsal

127
Q

hinge joint

A
  • elbow

- interphalangeal joints

128
Q

pivot joint

A
  • procimal radioulnar joints
  • atlantoaxial joint
  • humerous (radius) and ulna
129
Q

condylar joint

A
  • metacarpals and proximal phalanges

- oval surfaces

130
Q

saddle joint

A

carpometacarpal joints of the thumb

-trapezium and metacarpal bone of the thumb

131
Q

ball and socket joint

A
  • shoulder joint- shallow socket -> mobile

- hip joint- deep socket

132
Q

shoulder joint

A
  • aka- glenohumeral joint
  • shoulder joint is a ball and socket joint
  • allows: flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, medial rotation, lateral rotation, circumduction
  • *the most freely moveable joint in the body
  • rotator cuff muscles help stabilize the joint
  • unstable joint in general
133
Q

clinical correlation shoulder joint injuries

A
  • rotator cuff injuries- most commonly the supraspinatus muscle
  • dislocated shoulder- most common dislocation in adult body
  • separated shoulder- acromioclavicular joint
  • torn glenoid labrum- may lead to dislocation, repaired surgically
134
Q

elbow joint

A
  • hinge joint
  • allows flexion and extension of the forearm
  • humerous and ulna
135
Q

clinical correlation elbow joint injuries

A

-tennis elbow- extensor muscle injury at lateral epicondyle (repetitive extension of the wrist)
-little league elbow- inflammation at the medial epicondyle (repetitive flexion of the wrist)
the dislocation of the radial head- most common upper limb dislocation in kids (yanking on arm)

136
Q

hip joint

A
  • ball and socket joint
  • allows flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, medial and lateral rotation of the thigh
  • lesser degree of shoulder because deeper socket and more stable
137
Q

knee joint

A
  • the largest and most complex joint in the body
  • modified hinge joint- primary movement is uniaxial hinge movement
  • three joints within a single synovial cavity
  • tibiofemoral joint (laterally)
  • tibiofemoral joint (medially)
  • patellofemoral joint
  • allows flexion, extension, slight medial and lateral rotation in a flexed position
  • there are two knobs of the femur -> one articulates with tibula medially and one laterally -> the depression in between is patellofemoral
138
Q

clinical correlation knee joint injuries

A
  • swollen knee
  • meniscus tears
  • ligament tears
  • -dislocated knee
  • unhappy triad or terrible triad- leg is plants and it hit laterally and buckles usually tearing:
  • tibial (medial) collateral ligament (MCL)
  • medial meniscus
  • anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
139
Q

Temperomandibular joint (TMJ)

A
  • TMJ is a combined hinge and plane joint
  • only freely movable joint between skull bones (except ear ossicles)
  • jaw
  • only mandible moves in depression, elevation, protraction, retraction, lateral displacement, slight rotation
140
Q

arthritis

A
  • osteoarthritis- wear and tear of articular cartilage
  • joint space decreases
  • increased bone activity to stabilize -> bone spurs
  • pain
  • stiffness, decreased mobility
  • inflammation
141
Q

indivisdual muscle cell

A

muscle fiber

142
Q

3 types of muscles tissue

A
  • skeletal
  • cardiac
  • smooth
143
Q

special characteristics of muscle tissue

A
  • excitability (responsiveness)- ability to receive and respond to stimuli
  • contractility- shortens in response to stimuli
  • extensibility- ability to extend or stretch
  • elasticity- recoils to resting length after stretching
144
Q

functions of skeletal muscle tissue

A
  • produce skeletal movement
  • maintain posture and body position
  • support soft tissue- abs and floor of the pelvic cavity
  • guard entrances and exits- valves, sphincters
  • maintain body temperature
  • provide nutrient reserves- when your starving we break down proteins in muscle
145
Q

Anatomy of the skeletal muscle

A
  • a muscle is made up of thousands of muscle fiber cells
  • each fiber is wrapped in a membrane called an endomysium
  • fibers are grouped together in bundles called fascicle
  • each fascicle is wrapped by the perimysium
  • a couple of fascicles make up an entire muscle and is wrapped by the epimysium
146
Q

myofibril

A

make up a fascicle

-special contractile organelles found in skeletal muscles

147
Q

why do skeletal muscles have multiple nuclei

A
  • in order to get their length individual cells (myoblasts) fuse together
  • myosatellite cells are stem cells and the adult version of myoblasts- skeletal muscle repair
148
Q

sarcolemma

A

plasma membrane of muscle cell

149
Q

transverse (T) tubules

A
  • thousands of tiny invaginations (holes) of sarcolemma

- muscle action potentials travel through these

150
Q

sarcoplasm

A

cytoplasm of muscle fiber

-contains a large amount of glycogen (bc muscles need a lot of energy)

151
Q

myoglobin

A

protein that binds oxygen molecules, releases them for ATP production
-gives reddish appearance

152
Q

sarcoplasmic reticulum

A
  • storage site for Ca
  • helps in muscle contraction
  • encircles each myofibril
  • the sarcoplasmic reticulum has two ends that butt against T-tubules called the terminal cisterna- where most of the calcium is stored
153
Q

triad

A
  • T-tubule with two terminal cisterna against it
  • repeats down the whole length of the skeletal muscle fiber
  • release of calcium ions from terminal cisterns triggers muscle contraction
154
Q

Filaments

A

-overlapping thick and thin filaments make up the myofibrils

155
Q

the contraction of a skeletal muscle

A

-when the action potential travels through the sarcolemma into the t-tubules the calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum is dumped to specific areas of the myofibril -> triggers the action of the thick and thin filaments sliding on one another towards the middle -> contraction

156
Q

sarcomere

A

repeating functional unit on a myofibril

  • area that has thin filaments laterally and thick in the middle
  • when a muscle contracts all the sarcomeres shorten at the same not (not just some)
157
Q

Z line

A
  • the ends of each sarcomere

- anchor the thin filaments

158
Q

M line

A
  • middle of the sarcomere
  • anchor the thick filaments
  • connects central part of thick filaments
159
Q

A band

A
  • entire width of the thick filaments in the middle of the sarcomere
  • dense region
  • stays the same all the time
160
Q

I band

A

area of the sarcomere that is strictly thin filaments

-lighter area with rest of thin filament

161
Q

zones of overlap

A

where the thick and thin filaments overlap in the sarcomere

162
Q

H zone

A

the area of the sarcomere that is strictly thick filaments

  • center of A band with thick filaments
  • can disappear if the muscle is fully contracted
163
Q

How the bands and zones are affected by contraction

A
  • thin filaments slide over the thick filaments towards the M line
  • zone of overlap increases
  • Z line gets closer together
  • I and H band decrease
  • A band stays the same
164
Q

myofilaments

A
  • protein structures in myofibrils
  • thin filaments- composed of mostly actin
  • thick filaments- composed of mostly myosin
165
Q

myofibrils are built from 3 types of proteins

A
  • contractile proteins
  • regulatory proteins
  • structural proteins
166
Q

contractile proteins

A
  • generate force during contraction
  • myosin- motor protein part of thick filaments
  • actin- main component of thin filaments containing myosin binding site
167
Q

regulatory proteins

A
  • part of thin filament
  • tropomyosin- cover myosin binding sites in relaxed muscle (chain)
  • troponin- holds tropomyosin strands together (lock)
  • calcium binds to troponin and “unlocks” tropomyosin complex when the muscle contracts
168
Q

structural proteins

A
  • contribute to alignment, elasticity, stability and extensibility of myofibrils
  • ex. titin
169
Q

sliding filament theory

A
  • involves thin and thick filaments
  • thin filaments- compoased of actin, attached at the Z line
  • thick filaments- composed of myosin, myosin molecule tails point towards M line spiraled heads face surrounding thin filament
  • once calcium deactivates tropomyosin complex the active sites on thin filaments are exposed and the myosin heads bind to actin and pivot towards the M line and repeat -> contract
170
Q

what determines how much we contract

A
  • every sarcomere is shortened
  • but not every fiber (cell) is
  • once a fiber is stimulated all the sarcomeres are turned on
171
Q

nervous system control of skeletal muscle

A
  • a skeletal muscle fiber contracts when stimulated by a motor neuron
  • neuromuscular junction (NMJ): site where motor neuron meets midpoint of muscle fiber
  • each muscle fiber has only one NMJ- only gets stimulated by one motor neuron, but motor neuron can stimulate many fibers
  • a single neuron may branch to control more than one muscle fiber
172
Q

Synaptic cleft

A
  • the space between the motor end plate and the synaptic terminal
  • action potential arrives at synaptic terminal at NMJ
  • Vesicles containing ACh travel across the synaptic cleft so it can bind on the motor end plate/sarcolemma
  • enters the inside of cell to the t-tubule
  • AChE recycles the ACh
173
Q

excitation-contraction coupling

A
  • sequence of events as action potential travels along sarcolemma, causes myofilament sliding
  • action potential does not directly stimulate myofilaments
  • rise in intracellular calcium ions causes filaments to slide
  • action potential travels along T-tubules
  • terminal cisterns of sarcoplasmic reticulum dump calcium into cytosol at zones of overlap
174
Q

Myosin head pivoting

A
  • the power stroke
  • stored energy from resting state is released as myosin head pivots towards M line
  • bound ADP and phosphate group are released
  • another ATP binds to myosin head
  • link between active site on actin molecules and myosin head is broken
  • active site is exposed and able to form another cross bridge
  • myosin reactivation (repeat)
175
Q

functional properties of skeletal muscle

A
  • review of the sequence of events in muscle contraction:
    1. Neural control- motor neuron control at NMJ
    2. Excitation-Contraction coupling:
  • action potential causes release of ACh
  • Ca ions trigger thick/thin filament interaction
  • contraction persists with available ATP
176
Q

muscle tension

A
  • tension is greatest when the muscle is stimulated at its optimal length
  • varying tension in a contraction is NOT caused by how many sarcomeres are stimulated
  • Ca ions released affect the entire muscle fiber
  • the muscle fiber is either “On” (producing tension) or “off” (relaxed)
  • *tension produced depends on the fibers resting length at the time of stimulation
177
Q

twitch

A
  • single stimulus, single response
  • single action potential hitting a fiber
  • quick response quick relaxation
  • twitches vary in duration depending on muscle type (eye vs calf) -> eye has smaller motor unit
178
Q

factors that determine peak tension

A
  • two factors determine the amount of tension produced by skeletal muscle:
    1. amount of tension produced by each stimulated muscle fiber (the length of the fiber when it was stimulated)
    2. total number of muscle fibers stimulated at a given moment
  • muscle tone- resting tension in a muscle, due to constant activity of some motor units
179
Q

wave summation (temporal)

A
  • gradually increases the tension in muscles
  • if another stimulus is applied before the muscle relaxes completely then more tension results
  • results in unfused (incomplete) tetanus (max tension)
  • oscillates
180
Q

complete (fused) tetanus

A
  • at higher stimulus frequencies, there is no relation at all between stimulus
  • maintains maximum tension
181
Q

neurological control of muscle tension

A
  • most motor neurons control hundreds of muscle fibers
  • all of the muscle fibers controlled by a single motor neuron is a motor unit
  • the number of muscle fibers a motor neuron controls determines the precision of movement (if a motor neuron only controls a couple fibers (small motor unit) it is more precise)
  • a motor neuron to a few fibers has more precise control than one that stimulates thousands
182
Q

recruitment

A
  • the smooth increase in muscular tension produced by the increase in the number of active motor units
  • muscle fibers of each motor unit are intermingled with those of other motor units
  • contraction starts with activation of the smallest motor units in a stimulated muscle
  • as movement continues, larger motor units are activated and tension production rises steeply
  • gradually increases tension and stimulation of number of motor units
183
Q

classification of muscle contractions

A
  • muscle contractions are based on their pattern of tension production
    1. isotonic contractions (muscle length changes)
  • concentric contraction- muscle shortens
  • eccentric contractions- muscle elongates
    2. isometric contraction (length stays the same)
184
Q

eccentric contraction

A
  • muscle elongates
  • a muscle will elongate when the weight gradually decreases
  • ex. lowering down a weight
185
Q

isometric contraction

A
  • muscle contracts and doesnt change in length
  • this is when the weight remains the same
  • ex. flexing, holding
186
Q

concentric contraction

A
  • muscle shortens
  • this happens when the weight is gradually increasing
  • ex. picking up a weight
187
Q

muscle contraction requires ATP

A
  • this ATP may be produced aerobically or anaerobically
  • direct phosphorylation- creatine phosphate (CP) regenerates ATP (anaerobic)
  • glycolysis- anaerobic breakdown of glucose to pyruvate
  • aerobic metabolism- produces 95% of ATP demands of cell, electron transport chain
188
Q

direct phosphorylation

A
  • coupled reaction of creatine phosphate (CP) and ADP
  • energy source: CP
  • 15 seconds of energy
  • anaerobic
189
Q

anaerobic pathway

A
  • glycolysis and lactic
  • energy source- glucose
  • breaking down of glucose into pyruvate
  • energy lasts 30-40 seconds
190
Q

aerobic pathway

A
  • aerobic cellular respiration
  • energy source: glucose, pyruvic acid; fere fatty acids from adipose tissue; amino acids from protein catabolism
  • mitochondria
  • energy lasts hours
191
Q

energy source of a typical muscle fiber

A
  • when energy demands are low, and oxygen supply is abundant, muscle fibers:
  • absorb nutrients from interstitial fluid
  • build up heir energy reserves
  • muscle fibers store ATP and creatine phosphate (CP) a high energy compound
  • most energy is stored as glycogen (glycogen broken down into glucose)
192
Q

lactic acid build up

A
  • pyruvate is converted to lactic acid
  • lactic acid dissociates to lactate and a H+ ion
  • pH changes affect muscles ability to contract
  • results in muscle fatigue
  • calcium doesnt work well at low pH -> fatigue
193
Q

muscle fatigue and recovery

A
  • fatigue- when a muscle can no longer perform at the required level of activity
  • after peak activity, a decline in pH within muscle fibers is a main factor in fatigue
  • lower pH decreases Ca ion binding to troponin and alters enzymatic activities
  • recovery period- muscle fibers return to pre-exertion levels
194
Q

types of fibers: fast fibers

A
  • type 2 fibers
  • reach peak tension in less than .01 seconds
  • large diameters, densely packed myofibrils, large glycogen reserves and few mitochondria
  • produce powerful contractions
  • use massive amounts of ATP and fatigue quickly
  • large glycogen storage
195
Q

types of fibers: slow fibers

A
  • type 1 fibers
  • half the diameter as fast fibers and 3x as long to reach peak tension
  • specialized for long periods of contraction
  • large capillary network supports oxygen demand
  • myoglobin- red pigment that binds oxygen
196
Q

factors affecting muscle size and function

A
  • muscles may hypertrophy in response to repeated, exhaustive stimulation
  • increase mitochondria
  • increase concentration of glycolytic enzymes
  • larger glycogen reserves
  • muscle fibers increase in diameter
  • not increase in muscle fibers, increasing the thickness
  • larger cross-sectional area= stronger muscle
  • male sex hormones may contribute
197
Q

factors affecting muscle size and function badly

A
  • skeletal muscles not regularly stimulated by a motor neuron may atrophy
  • loss of tone and mass
  • muscle fibers become smaller and weaker
  • normal consequence of aging
  • permanent atrophy with paralysis
  • temporary atrophy with immobilization
198
Q

Polio

A
  • caused by a virus

- affects motor neurons in the spinal cord and brain causing muscle atrophy and paralysis

199
Q

tetanus

A
  • caused by a toxin released by a bacteria
  • inhibits motor activity
  • causes contraction of skeletal muscles throughout the body
200
Q

botulism

A

-paralyzes skeletal muscle by preventing ACh release at neuromuscular junctions

201
Q

Myasthenia gravis

A

loss of ACh receptors at the neuromuscular junctions

-results in progressive muscular weakness

202
Q

rigor motis

A
  • deceased body goes through contractions
  • Ca seeps out of sarcoplasm reticulum -> muscles contract
  • this is sustained bc we are not breathing
203
Q

the sequence of events in skeletal muscle control

A
  • neural control- skeletal muscle contracts when stimulated by action potential (from motor neuron) into synaptic terminal
  • excitation-contraction coupling- action potential causes release of ACh -> release of Ca ions
  • contraction cycle begins
204
Q

when ACh crosses he synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the motor end plate

A

makes plasma membrane more permeable to sodium ions -> action potential travels to sarcolemma -> t-tubules

205
Q

smooth muscle

A
  • smooth muscle locations:
  • walls of all hollow organs except the heart
  • blood vessels
  • smooth muscle fiber appearance:
  • spindle shape
  • thousands of times smaller than skeletal muscle
  • smooth muscle organization: 2 sheets
  • longitudinal layer
  • circular layer
  • *greatest ability to regenerate of all 3 muscle types
206
Q

smooth vs skeletal muscle

A
  • smooth muscle NMJ’s are more diffuse (varicosities) with wide synaptic clefts
  • motor neurons control skeletal muscle
  • autonomic nerve fiber controls smooth muscle
207
Q

muscular dystrophy

A
  • a group of inherited muscle-destroying diseases that appear during childhood
  • muscle fibers atrophy and degenerate
  • dychenne muscular dystrophy (DMD): most severe type
  • almost exclusively in males 2-7 years old
  • life expectancy: late teens/early 20
  • no cure: prednisone and immunosuppressant drugs
208
Q

muscular system

A
  • almost all of the 700 voluntary controlled muscles that make up the muscular system include skeletal muscle and connective tissue
  • most muscles function to produce movement some stabilize bones
  • also contribute to homeostasis by regulating organ volume moving substances and producing heat within the body
209
Q

how skeletal muscles produce movement: attachment site

A
  • most muscles cross at least one joint and usually attach to articulating bones of a joint
  • when skeletal muscle contracts: one bone of joint remains stationary while other is pulled
210
Q

origin

A

-attachment of muscles tendon to stationary bone

211
Q

insertion

A

attachment of muscles tendon to movable bone

212
Q

bicep

A
  • anterior
  • third class lever
  • 2 attachments
  • crosses the elbow joint and attaches to radius on ulna
  • attaches at the humeral head
  • shoulder is the stationary (origin)
  • bicep to radius (insertion) -> radius moves
  • prime mover- bicep
  • antagonist- tricep
  • agonist- tricep
213
Q

antagonist

A

muscles that oppose

214
Q

how skeletal muslce produce movement: lever system

A
  • in movement, bones act as levers: a rigid structure that moves around a fixed point (fulcrum, joint)
  • a lever is acted on at two different points by two different forces:
  • effort- causes movement
  • load- (resistance): opposed movement (weight)
  • mechanical advantage: load is closer to the fulcrum than the effort
  • mechanical disadvantage: load is farther from the fulcrum than the effort (most of our systems)
215
Q

classifications of levers

A
  • three types of levers based on positions of the fulcrum, the effort and load
  • first class levers- fulcrum is between the effort and the load (ex. scissors, seesaws)
  • second class lever- the load is between the fulcrum and the effort (ex. wheelbarrow)
  • **third class lever- the effort is between the fulcrum and the load (ex. pair of tweezers)
216
Q

first class lever

A
  • neck extensor muscles
  • lifting up your head
  • fulcrum- upper cervical spine
  • effort- posterior
  • effort- anterior
217
Q

second class lever

A
  • walking on ball of feet
  • calf muscles
  • load- weight of body
  • fulcrum- ball of foot
  • effort- posterior in calf muscles
218
Q

how skeletal muscles porudce movement: fascicle arrangement

A
  • fascicle arrangement affects a muscles power and range of motion
  • there are 5 patterns of fascicle arrangement:
  • parallel
  • fusiform (like parallel but fuse at the end)
  • circular (mouth, eyes, open and close)
  • triangular (fan out, pecs)
  • pennate (feather like)
  • longer fibers produce greater range of motion
  • power of muscle depends on its cross sectional area
219
Q

pennate

A
  • unipennate
  • bipennate- tendon in middle and fasicle project on both sides
  • multipennate- one common tendon and project out
  • 45 degree angle
220
Q

how skeletal muscles produce movement: coordination of muscles

A

-most skeletal muscles arranged in opposing pairs at a joint (usually opposite sides of bone or joint)

221
Q

agonist

A
  • prime mover

- causes an action

222
Q

antagonist

A
  • stretches and yields to the effects of the prime mover

- opposite movement

223
Q

synergist

A

secondary type muscles

-contracts and stabilized intermediate joints, prevents unwanted movement (aids movement of prime mover)

224
Q

fixators

A
  • stabilize the origin of the prime mover so it can act more efficiently
  • ex. muscles in the shoulder contract when moving the arm
225
Q

muscles naming

A

-direction:
-rectus- parallel
-transverse- perpendicular to midline
-oblique- diagnal to midline
Size:
-maximus- largest
-minimus- smallest
-longus- long
-brevis- short
-latissimus- widest
-longissimus- longest
shape:
-deltoid- triangular
-trapezius- trapezoid
action:
flexor- decreases a joint angle
-abductor- moves a bone away from midline
number of origins:
-bicep- 2 origins
-triceps- 3 origins
-quadriceps- 4 origins

226
Q

sternocleidomastoid

A
  • sternum
  • clavical
  • inserts on the mastoid process
227
Q

plantar flex

A

-balls of feet

228
Q

dorsiflexion

A

-walking on heels

229
Q

greenstick fracture

A
  • occurs in long bone

- one half bends and the other half breaks

230
Q

depressed fracture

A
  • skull fracture
  • dent
  • impact

HAN 200 (3 decks)

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