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1
Q

What system works in conjunction with the circulatory system?

A

Pulmonary system

The combined system is referred to as the cardiopulmonary or cardiorespiratory system.

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2
Q

What are the three main purposes of the cardiorespiratory system?

A
  • Transport O2 and nutrients to tissues
  • Removal of CO2 wastes from tissues
  • Regulation of body temperature
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3
Q

What are the two major adjustments of blood flow during exercise?

A
  • Increased cardiac output
  • Redistribution of blood flow from inactive organs to active muscle
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4
Q

What is the primary function of the heart?

A

Creates pressure to pump blood

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5
Q

What is the role of arteries and arterioles in the circulatory system?

A

Carry blood away from the heart

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6
Q

What is the function of capillaries?

A

Exchange of O2, CO2, and nutrients with tissues

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7
Q

What do veins and venules do?

A

Carry blood toward the heart

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8
Q

What is the pulmonary circuit responsible for?

A

Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood to the left side of the heart

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9
Q

What is the systemic circuit responsible for?

A

Pumps oxygenated blood to the body and returns deoxygenated blood to the right side of the heart

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10
Q

What is myocardial infarction (MI)?

A

Blockage in coronary blood flow resulting in cell damage

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11
Q

What type of muscle is the myocardium?

A

Cardiac muscle

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12
Q

What is the primary energy production method for heart muscle?

A

Aerobic

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13
Q

What is the cardiac cycle?

A

Consists of systole (contraction phase) and diastole (relaxation phase)

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14
Q

How much blood is typically ejected from the ventricles per beat?

A

Approximately 2/3

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15
Q

What is blood pressure?

A

The force exerted by blood against the wall of a blood vessel

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16
Q

What is normal blood pressure expressed as?

A

120/80 mmHg

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17
Q

What is systolic pressure?

A

Pressure generated during ventricular contraction

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18
Q

What is diastolic pressure?

A

Pressure in the arteries during cardiac relaxation

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19
Q

What is the equation for mean arterial pressure (MAP)?

A

MAP = DBP + 0.33(SBP – DBP) or MAP = ⅓SBP + ⅔DBP

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20
Q

What defines primary (essential) hypertension?

A

Cause unknown; accounts for 90% of hypertension cases

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21
Q

What is the role of baroreceptors in blood pressure regulation?

A

Detect changes in blood pressure and adjust sympathetic nervous system activity

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22
Q

What is the function of the sinoatrial (SA) node?

A

Pacemaker that initiates depolarization

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23
Q

What is the primary factor that influences stroke volume?

A

End-diastolic volume (EDV)

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24
Q

What is the Frank-Starling mechanism?

A

Greater EDV results in a greater volume of blood ejected due to stretching of ventricles

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25
What increases venous return during exercise?
* Venoconstriction * Skeletal muscle pump * Ventilatory pump
26
What is the product of heart rate and stroke volume called?
Cardiac output (Q = HR x SV)
27
What is the impact of regular exercise on the heart?
Cardioprotective, reduces incidence of heart attacks, and improves survival
28
What is the clinical significance of beta-blockers?
Reduce heart rate and contractility, lowering myocardial oxygen demand
29
What does heart rate variability indicate?
Balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
30
Fill in the blank: The average blood pressure during a cardiac cycle is called _______.
Mean arterial pressure
31
True or False: The left side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
False
32
What is the significance of the myocardial wall structure?
Receives blood supply via coronary arteries and has high demand for oxygen and nutrients
33
What are the components of blood?
* Plasma * Red blood cells * White blood cells * Platelets
34
What increases venous return during exercise?
* Venoconstriction * Muscle pump * Respiratory pump ## Footnote Venous return is crucial for maintaining cardiac output during physical activity.
35
What are the physical characteristics of blood?
* Plasma * Red blood cells * White blood cells * Platelets * Hematocrit ## Footnote Plasma is the liquid portion, while blood cells serve various functions including oxygen transport and immune response.
36
How is blood flow related to pressure and resistance?
Blood flow is directly proportional to the pressure difference and inversely proportional to resistance. ## Footnote The formula for blood flow is: Blood flow = Δ Pressure / Resistance.
37
What is the major factor determining resistance to blood flow?
The radius of the blood vessel. ## Footnote Resistance increases with vessel length and blood viscosity but decreases with larger radius.
38
What happens to cardiac output during exercise?
* Increases due to increased heart rate * Increases due to increased stroke volume ## Footnote Stroke volume may plateau at around 40-60% VO2 max in untrained individuals.
39
What is the Fick equation used for?
It describes the relationship between cardiac output, arteriovenous oxygen difference, and oxygen consumption (VO2). ## Footnote VO2 = Q × (a-v)O2 difference.
40
What is the arteriovenous difference (a-vO2 difference)?
It is the amount of O2 taken up from 100 ml of blood. ## Footnote This difference increases during exercise due to higher oxygen uptake in tissues.
41
Fill in the blank: Blood flow to contracting muscle during exercise increases, while blood flow to ________ is reduced.
less active organs. ## Footnote This redistribution is essential for meeting the metabolic demands of active muscles.
42
What regulates local blood flow during exercise?
Autoregulation. ## Footnote Autoregulation refers to the intrinsic control of blood flow by changes in local metabolites like oxygen tension and pH.
43
True or False: Heart rate and blood pressure responses during exercise depend on the intensity and duration of the exercise.
True. ## Footnote Other factors like environmental conditions and emotional influences also play a role.
44
What is cardiovascular drift?
The gradual increase in heart rate during prolonged exercise despite a decrease in stroke volume. ## Footnote This phenomenon is often due to dehydration and reduced plasma volume.
45
What are the primary causes of sudden cardiac death during exercise in youth?
* Genetic anomalies of coronary arteries * Cardiomyopathy * Myocarditis ## Footnote These conditions can lead to lethal heart rhythms during physical activity.
46
What is the central command theory in cardiovascular regulation?
It states that the initial signal to drive the cardiovascular system comes from higher brain centers. ## Footnote This is fine-tuned by feedback from various receptors sensitive to changes in muscle activity.
47
What is the double product (Rate Pressure Product)?
It is calculated as HR x systolic BP, indicating the work of the heart. ## Footnote The double product increases linearly with exercise intensity.
48
How does arm exercise compare to leg exercise at the same VO2 level?
Arm exercise results in higher heart rate and blood pressure due to greater sympathetic stimulation. ## Footnote This is because there is less vasculature in the arms compared to the legs.
49
What factors influence recovery of heart rate and blood pressure after intermittent exercise?
* Fitness level * Temperature and humidity * Duration and intensity of exercise * Duration of rest interval ## Footnote Recovery can vary significantly based on these conditions.
50
What are the three types of capillaries mentioned?
Blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, nerve fibers ## Footnote These capillaries play crucial roles in circulation and nutrient exchange.
51
What is the function of the endocardium?
Serves as protective inner lining of the chambers and valves ## Footnote It consists of endothelium tissue and a thick subendothelial layer of elastic and collagenous fibers.
52
How does endurance exercise affect cardiac injury during a heart attack?
Protects against cardiac injury ## Footnote Trained individuals suffer less cardiac injury (20%) compared to untrained individuals (60%) during a myocardial infarction.
53
What is the heartbeat rate at rest and during heavy exercise?
At rest: 75 beats per minute; Heavy exercise: 180 beats per minute ## Footnote The time spent in systole and diastole changes with exercise intensity.
54
What are the pressure and volume changes during the cardiac cycle?
Systole: pressure peaks at 120 mmHg; Diastole: pressure drops to 0 mmHg ## Footnote Volume changes also occur, with heart sounds marking the end of systole.
55
What is the normal measurement of arterial blood pressure?
Systolic: 120 mmHg; Diastolic: 80 mmHg ## Footnote Korotkoff sounds are heard between these pressures.
56
List the factors that influence arterial blood pressure.
* Blood volume increases * Heart rate increases * Stroke volume increases * Blood viscosity increases * Peripheral resistance increases ## Footnote All contribute to an increase in blood pressure.
57
Where do action potentials originate in the heart?
Sinoatrial (SA) node ## Footnote The SA node is known as the pacemaker of the heart.
58
What does a normal electrocardiogram (ECG) show?
P wave, QRS complex, T wave ## Footnote The PR interval and QT interval are also significant in interpreting heart rhythms.
59
True or False: S-T segment depression on an ECG indicates ischemia.
True ## Footnote This can be a sign of insufficient blood flow to the heart muscle.
60
What happens during ventricular depolarization?
QRS complex appears on the ECG ## Footnote This wave indicates the contraction of the ventricles.
61
What regulates heart rate in the nervous system?
Parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves ## Footnote They influence the SA and AV nodes to adjust heart rate.
62
Fill in the blank: Cardiac output equals _______.
[cardiac rate times stroke volume] ## Footnote This equation is fundamental in understanding heart performance.
63
What are the components of blood?
* Plasma * White blood cells * Platelets * Red blood cells ## Footnote Red blood cells typically constitute about 42% of blood volume.
64
What are the pressure changes across systemic circulation?
* Left ventricle: 120 mmHg * Large arteries: 80-120 mmHg * Arterioles: 120-50 mmHg * Capillaries: 50-30 mmHg * Large veins: 4-0 mmHg ## Footnote These variations are crucial for understanding blood flow dynamics.
65
How does exercise affect cardiovascular variables?
* Blood pressure increases * Stroke volume increases * Cardiac output increases * Heart rate increases * Arteriovenous oxygen difference increases ## Footnote These changes enhance oxygen delivery to muscles during physical activity.
66
What is the role of the skeletal muscle pump?
Facilitates venous return to the heart ## Footnote It relies on muscle contractions to open venous valves.
67
What is the Frank-Starling mechanism?
Increased end-diastolic volume leads to increased stroke volume ## Footnote This mechanism explains how the heart adapts to varying levels of blood return.
68
What is the arteriovenous oxygen difference range mentioned?
6 to 18 milliliters per 100 milliliters ## Footnote The arteriovenous oxygen difference is a measure of the amount of oxygen extracted by tissues from the blood.
69
What is the peak arteriovenous oxygen difference at 50% maximum oxygen consumption?
15 milliliters per 100 milliliters
70
What is the cardiac output at rest?
5 liters per minute
71
What is the cardiac output during heavy exercise?
25 liters per minute
72
What percentage of cardiac output does the intestine receive at rest?
20 to 25 percent
73
During exercise, what percentage of cardiac output does skeletal muscle receive?
80 to 85 percent
74
What is the heart rate at rest in beats per minute?
60 beats per minute
75
What is the peak heart rate during exercise?
120 beats per minute
76
What happens to cardiac output during recovery after exercise?
Dips down to 5 liters per minute
77
True or False: Splanchnic blood flow increases during heavy exercise.
False
78
What is the stroke volume at rest in milliliters per beat?
78 milliliters per beat
79
What is the peak stroke volume during exercise?
106 milliliters per beat
80
What is the mean arterial blood pressure for arm exercise at 1.0 liters per minute?
120 millimeters of mercury
81
What is the heart rate response to watts during recovery?
Negative differences of 60, 52, 44, and 39
82
What is the stroke volume trend during prolonged exercise?
Begins at 120 milliliters per beat and ends at 90 liters per minute
83
What is the relationship between skeletal muscle activity and venous return?
Deeper breathing and skeletal muscle activity lead to improved venous return
84
Fill in the blank: Increased cardiac output leads to increased blood flow to _______.
skeletal muscles
85
What does central command in cardiovascular control refer to?
Higher brain center influencing skeletal muscle and CV control center
86
What type of receptors point to the cardiovascular control center?
Baroreceptors
87
What is the stroke volume at 90 minutes during prolonged exercise?
90 liters per minute
88
What is the typical stroke volume at peak exercise?
106 milliliters per beat
89
The time between heart beats.
Standard deviation of the R–R interval.
90
Volume of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole (“preload”).
End-diastolic volume (EDV)
91
Pressure the heart must pump against to eject blood (“afterload”).
Average aortic blood pressure
92
Liquid portion of blood
Plasma
93
Contain hemoglobin to carry oxygen
Red blood cells

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