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Physiology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What makes up a cell membrane?

A

A phospholipid bilayer which consists of a phosphate head and lipid tail

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2
Q

What controls the substances that pass the phospholipid bilayer?

A

Integral proteins

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3
Q

What are the 3 types of integral proteins?

A

Gate
Pump
Receptor

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4
Q

What parts of the cell membrane are hydrophilic? Hydrophobic? Why?

A

The lipid tail is hydrophobic and the phosphate head is hydrophilic
Polar water molecules interact with the phosphate heads really well because the heads are also polar

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5
Q

What is Na+/K+ ATPase?

A

It is an integral protein that pumps sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell. Specifically, it pumps 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in. It uses ATP as energy to do this

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6
Q

Why is Sodium also known as Na?

A

Sodium = Natrium in latin

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7
Q

Why is Potassium also known as K+?

A

Potassium = Kalium in latin

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8
Q

What is an ion?

A

A molecule that has a net charge
Cation: positive ion
Anion: negative ion

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9
Q

Normal sodium levels are higher in the _______ than in the _______

A

Normal sodium levels are higher in the extracellular fluid than in the intracellular fluid

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10
Q

What are normal ECF levels of sodium?

A

135-145 mml/L Na+

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11
Q

What is hyponatremia?

A

Low sodium in the blood (blood is an extracellular fluid)

Anything less than 135 mmol/L Na+

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12
Q

What is hypernatremia?

A

High sodium in the blood (blood is an extracellular fluid)

Anything above 145 mmol/L Na+

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13
Q

What is eunatremia?

A

Normal levels of sodium in the blood

135-145 mmol/ L Na+

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14
Q

What are normal ICF potassium levels?

A

120 mmol/L K+

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15
Q

What is hypokalemia?

A

low potassium in the blood

Anything less than 3.5 mmol/L K+

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16
Q

What is hyperkalemia?

A

High potassium in the blod

Anything above 5.0 mmol/L K+

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17
Q

What are the 3 functions of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump?

A
  1. Levels of sodium are higher in the ECF than ICF
  2. Levels of potassium are higher in the ICF than ECF
  3. Causes the cell to have an overall negative charge
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18
Q

Why is the cell negative?

A

Because the pump is not equal, more positive ions (sodium) are leaving. It is a 3: 2 ratio that causes negative charge of about -80 mv.

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19
Q

What is the resting membrane potential?

A

The RMP of a cell is the result of the Na+ and K+ concentrations.

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20
Q

Why is it safe to say the cell is polarized?

A

Because the inside is slightly negative and the outside is slightly positive.

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21
Q

What is water intoxication?

A

It is a type of hyponatremia. This can be seen in cases of cholera, where there is excessive vomitting and sodium levels are decreased. In this case, if we treat it with water, it will only mkae things worse for the patient

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22
Q

What is an example of hyperkalemia?

A

This is seen with crush syndrome. When ur skeletal muscles are crushed the potassium in the ICF will be released and the levels of potassium in the ECF (blood) will increase.

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23
Q

Which scientists were the first to perform experiment on the giant axon of a squid?

A

Hodgkin and Huxley

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24
Q

How did Hodgkin and Huxley determine the resting membrane potential?

A

When they placed both electrodes in the ICF of the axon, the voltage was -80mv.

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25
Q

How did Hodgkin and Huxley measure the different parts of the cell’s action potential?

A

By adding batteries and adding voltage to the cell. They realized that after adding 30mv total, the cell reached a threshold, before the ap.

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26
Q

What is an action potential?

A

An electrical event in which the cell’s polarity switches. The cell goes from an overall negative charge to an overall positive charge.

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27
Q

How long do action potentials last?

A

3-4 millisecond

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28
Q

What is threshold?

A

Start of the action potential

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29
Q

What is depolarization?

A

removing the polarized state. Once it is zero, it is no longer polar

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30
Q

What is overshoot?

A

When the inside of the cell is more positive than the outside

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31
Q

What is repolarization?

A

internal charge of the cell returns to a negative state

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32
Q

What is hyperpolarization?

A

When the membrane potential is more negative than the resting membrane potential.

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33
Q

What is the voltage gated sodium channel

A

A protein embedded into the phospholipid bilayer that allows sodium ions to pass and is controlled by the voltage of the cell

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34
Q

The voltage gated sodium channel has a threshold, what does this mean for the cell? How does it work?

A

The VGNaC is closed at -80 mv but at -50 mv, it will open and allow soium to enter through diffusion. Since there are higher levels of sodium in the ECF, the diffusion will enter the ICF.

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35
Q

What is the difference between agonist and antagonist?

A

Agonist: something that binds to a protein and allows it to do its job
Antagonist: something that binds to a protein and blocks it from doing its job

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36
Q

What is ouabain?

A

It is a poison that is a Na+K+ATPase antagonist. In other words, it blocks the Na+K+ATPase from releasing Na+ into the ECF. The organism will no longer have action potentials and eventually, will die

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37
Q

What is the voltage gated potassium channel?

A

A protein that allows potassium ions to pass and is controlled by voltage.

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38
Q

How does the voltage gated potassium channel work?

A

at 30 m.v, the voltage gated potassium channel opens for 2ms and allows potassium to leave the cell. This will cause repolarization. It opens at the overshoot and closes at the hyperpolarization

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39
Q

What is hyperpolarization?

A

This is when the polar state of the cell is lower than the RMB. This is caused by the VGC since it opens for 2 ms Its open for an extra millisecond.

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40
Q

Why did animals evolve to have the na=/K=ATPase?

A

to create high levels of K+ inside the cell and high levels of Na+ outside the cell why? because we need high concentrations of both Na+ and K+ to create ap

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41
Q

What is TTX? How would it affect us?

A

This is a chemical inside pufferfish that antagonzes the VGNa+C. It blocks the VGNa+C from functioning and does not allow Na+ to enter. Depolarization will not occur, ap will not be generated

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42
Q

What is lidocaine?

A

A local anesthetic used to avoid pain. This is used for wisdom teeth removal. It is another VGNa+ C antagonist and it works by disrupting the protein and action potential.

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43
Q

How long does lidocaine last?

A

10-15 min, before the VGNa+ C opens back up

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44
Q

What is the suffix -caine mean?

A

It means that drugs with this suffix antagonize the VGNa+C

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45
Q

What happens if lidocaine and epi mix? Why is it beneficial?

A

It causes blood vessels to constrict and the drug will be held in the blood for much longer. This allows long procedures to occur without having to give multiple injections

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46
Q

Where should we AVOID epi?

A

In the ears, nose, toes, fingers and penis because it will disrupt blood flow and oxygen to these important organs

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47
Q

What is oraverse?

A

THis is an injection that can reverse the numbing effect. It works by dilating blood vessels and allow blood flow to “ wash out” lidocaine

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48
Q

What are the 3 main things that Hodgkin and Huxley discovered?

A
  1. Resting membrane potential
    2 Action potentioal
    3 Conduction
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49
Q

How was conduction discovered?

A

H and H added an additional set of electrodes and they realized that the ap was traveling down the axon.

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50
Q

How is conduction measured?

A

We measure the speed of conduction (conduction velocity) in meters/second.

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51
Q

Action potentials travel in segments, what does this mean?

A

An action potential is conducted in segments and can ONLY go forward. It never goes back because by the time an ap sparks in another segment, the previous one reached hyperpolarized

52
Q

Why is it so important for the VGK+C to stay open for 2 ms?

A

Because it allows the area of the cell that has had an AP to hyperpolarize. If it only stayed open for 1 ms we would die because it would allow for repolarization to occur.

53
Q

What happens to the proteins if the cell is wrapped in myelin? What about the a.p?

A

The VGNa+C and VGK+C will not be able to diffuse because they are blocked. The action potential cannot occur in myelinated areas so they only occur at the nodes of ranvier

54
Q

What is the advantage of myelin?

A

It allows action potentials to conduct at a faster rate. The AP can jump around and this is known as saltatory condution.The rate of conduction is 100m/s

55
Q

What disease causes demyelination of axons?

A

Multiple sclerosis, it causes vision and weakness because the conduction velocity is very slow.

56
Q

What is the name for cells that are myelinated in the CNS?

A

Oligodendrocytes

57
Q

What is the name for cells that myelinated in the PNS?

A

Schwann cells

58
Q

What is the difference between CNS and PNS?

A

CNS: brain and spinal cord
PNS: Nerves stemming out of the brain and spinal cord

59
Q

What is multiple sclerosis?

A

An autoimmune disease that creates antibodies that destroy oligodendrocytes

60
Q

What disease attacks Schwann cells?

A

Guillan Barre Syndrome

61
Q

What are the main parts of a neuron?

A

Dendrites, axon, cell body, axon hillock, terminal buttons, and collaterals

62
Q

which part of the neuron, is the first where we can see VGNa+ and VGK+ Channels?

A

The axon hillock

63
Q

Where on the neuron, do we know a.p do NOT exist?

A

On dendrites and soma, because there are no sodium or potassium channel proteins.

64
Q

What happens if a neurons axon is myelinated? where does the ap start?

A

AP starts at the action hillock and jumps around the nodes of ranvier, until it reaches the end.

65
Q

What is white matter?

A

A type of tissue in the nervous system. White matter is anything that is myelinated

66
Q

What is gray matter?

A

A type of tissue in the nervous system. This includes anything that is not myelinated.

67
Q

What parts of the neuron are gray matter? white matter?

A

Gray: dendrites, terminal buttons and soma
White: Axon hillock, axon

68
Q

What is synapse?

A

The area where one neuron’s terminal buttons indirectly interact with another neurons dendrites

69
Q

Does synapse occur in white matter or gray matter? why?

A

Synapse must occur in gray matter because they have to be unmyelinated. In whit ematter areas, myelination blocks molecules from passing through the membrane. We need synapse to be free so it can release and send neurotransmitters to other neurons

70
Q

What is the distance in between synapses?

A

10 nanometers

71
Q

What is the name of the groove that separates our brain from left and right? (#1).

A

Longitudinal fissure

72
Q

What is sulcus?

A

These are the grooves on the brain. The longitudinal fissue is a type of sulcus

73
Q

Why are sulcus important?

A

Because they increase the surface area of the brain while making sure our brain isnt huge.

74
Q

What does the brain stem consist of?

A

Midbrain
Pons
Medulla

75
Q

Which structure does the spinal cord come out of?

A

Foramen magnum (hole)

76
Q

What is the outer gray lining of the brain called?

A

Cerebral cortex, made of gray matter so we will find dendries and soma in this area

77
Q

Besides the cerebral cortex, what is the other area of the brain?

A

The subcortical white matter is the region that is filled with white matter

78
Q

How many cranial nerves do we have ?

A

12 pairs

79
Q

How many spinal nerves do we have?

A

31 pairs

80
Q

What are the different types of spinal nerves? What sections?

A 
Cervical: C1-C5
Thoracic: T1-T12 
Lumbar: L1-L5
Sacral: S1-S5 
Cocyx: Co1
81
Q

What are the 3 important cranial nerves? Where are they? (#2)

A

CN 3
CN 7
CN 12

82
Q

What is CN 3? Where does it originate?

A

Oculomotor nerve that helps vision muscles

Found on the Midbrain

83
Q

What is CN 7? Where does it originate?

A

Facial nerve that helps control and relax facial muscles

Found on the pons

84
Q

What is CN 12? Where does it originate?

A

Nerve that innervates the toungue and controls muscles

Found on the medulla

85
Q

If we have a lesion in the midbrain, what nerve is likely to be affected? what symptoms would a patient have?

A

Lesion in the midbrain is likely to affect CN 3. This would cause vision issues in the patient.

86
Q

Why is Spinal nerve C3 so important?

A

It is the phrenic nerve so it is responsible for the ap of the diaphragm and respiratory muscles

87
Q

What is the function of spinal nerve C5?

A

It innervates the biceps muscle and helps with flexion of the elbow joint

88
Q

What is the function of the spinal nerve C7?

A

This nerve innervates the triceps muscle and helps with extension of the elbow joint

89
Q

What is the function of the spinal nerve L3?

A

This nerve innervates the quadriceps and helps with knee extension

90
Q

What is the function of the spinal nerve S1?

A

This nerve innervates the gastrocnemius muscle and helps with plantar flexion

91
Q

What are the important sulci and gyrus structures of the brain? #3

A

Central sulcus, precentral gyrus, post central gyrus, pre and post central sulcus, lateral sulcus

92
Q

What two groups f neurons work together to move muscles in ur body?

A

The upper motor neurons and lower motor neurons

93
Q

Where do upper motor neurons decossate if trying to get to spinal cord?

A

Medulla

94
Q

If a person wants to move their right bicep to scratch their nose, how would it work?

A

The upper motor neuron begins in the left side of the cerbral cortex, it extends down the subcortical white matter, decossates at the medulla. THen connect with C5 to contract the muscle

95
Q

What does it mean to be ipsy lateraL?

A

If someone has a deficit and the lesion is on the same side as the affected limb (after decossation), it is an ipsy lateral deficit

96
Q

UMN are myelinated with

A

Oligodendrocytes

97
Q

LMN are myelinated with

A

Schwann cells

98
Q

UMN that contrl the head start in which region of the brain?

A

Lateral side of the precentral gyrus

99
Q

UMN that control the arms start in which region of the brain?

A

Superior side of the precentral gyrus

100
Q

UMN that control the legs start in which region of the brain?

A

Medial side of the precentral gyrus

101
Q

What does the suffix paresis mean?

A

Weakness, a little bit of movement

102
Q

What does the suffix plegia mean?

A

Paralysis, no movement

103
Q

What is monoplegia?

A

Paralysis in one limb of the body

104
Q

What is hemiplegia?

A

Paralysis on one side of the body

105
Q

What is paraplegia?

A

Paralysis of the legs

106
Q

What is quadraplegia?

A

Paralysis of both legs and arms

107
Q

What is the membrane of skeletal muscle?

A

Sarclemma

108
Q

What is the motor end plate?

A

Part of the sarcolemma that synapses with the terminal button

109
Q

Can action potentials jump over synapse?

A

No, we need to convert the electrical action potential into a chemical signal to cross the synapse and become a muscle action potential.
It goes from a nerve action potential into acetylcholine to become a muscle action potential

110
Q

What part of the neuron holds acetylcholine?

A

Vesicles hold acetylcholine inside the terminal buttons

111
Q

Each vesicle holds _______ ach molecules

A

10000

112
Q

What are the main proteins found in vesicles?

A

Synaptotagmin
V Snare
T Snare

113
Q

What is the overall function of v snare and t snare proteins?

A

They attract each other to help dock the vesicle for when synaptotagmin is ready to push the vesicle down

114
Q

What is the VGCa+ C?

A

A protein embedded in the terminal button that opens and allow Calcium to come in and bind to synaptotagmin

115
Q

When calcium binds to synaptotagmin, what does that do?

A

Since synaptotagmin is the protein attached to the vesicle, binding of calcium would allow the protein to pull the vesicle down and push it into the membrane. This is known as exocytosis and the release of ach molecules

116
Q

What is the process of calcium and the other proteins?

A

A nerve action potentioal comes down and opens the VGCa+C, allowing the Ca+ to come in and bind to synaptotagmin. This allows synaptotagmin to pull the vesicle down, release ach through exocytosis while the T snare and V snare hold the vesicle in place.

117
Q

What is lambert eaton syndrome?

A

An autoimmune disease that creates antibodies to destroy VGCa+C in the terminal buttons. It antagonizes these channels. A symptom of this is flacid paralysis because Ca+ is blocked from inducing exocytosis

118
Q

What happens to us with black widow venom?

A

It causes pores to form in the terminal button, allowing too much Ca+ to come in uncontrollably. A symptom of this is spasmatic paralysis

119
Q

At rest, what is the conditin of synaptotagmin?

A

The vesicle is docked but synaptotagmin is NOT inserted, it only inserts when Ca+ binds to it because it allows it to be lipophillic

120
Q

What is clostridium botunum?

A

An anaerobic bacteria that produces a toxin that destroys V and T snares. The vesicles are unable to be docked and exocytosis is blocked

121
Q

What is clostridium botunum toxin?

A

Botulism it causes flacid paralysis and this is where botox comes from

122
Q

What is botox?

A

A substance that works as a endopeptidase (breaks peptide bonds) in V snares and T snares

123
Q

What are the proteins found on the motor end plate?

A

Nicotinic Ach receptors

124
Q

What substance binds to Nach receptors?

A

AcH and this causes the receptor to open for 1 ms and allow Na+ to rush in, causing an action potential

125
Q

What is curari?

A

It is a substance used by anesthesiologists to block the nmj

126
Q

What is the importance of the banded krait?

A

It has a toxin called alphabungarotoxin that antagonizes Ach and causes flacid paralysis

127
Q

What happens after 1 ms of the Nachr being open?

A

An enzyme called cholesterase breaks the ach apart and causes the receptor to close

Physiology (2 decks)

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