C2 Research Methods (AO2/AO3 & exam skills) Flashcards
What are some of the advantages of using questionnaires in sociological research?
Questionnaire = A list of standardised questions either on paper or increasingly online
- Coding & quantification: The use of pre-coded questions makes it easier to quantify data
- Ease of completion: A closed questionnaire is relatively quick & easy to complete
- Anonymity: May improve validity of collected data
- Sampling: Contact and question large amounts of people quickly, easily and efficiently
- Reliability: Easy to standardise - everyone answers the same question
E.I. - WHY might questionnaires be used by sociologists adopting a positivist approach? WHY might anonymous questionnaires be more valid? WHY might the use of questionnaires help sociologists to make generalisations about their target population?
What are some of the disadvantages of using questionnaires in sociological research?
Questionnaire = A list of standardised questions either on paper or increasingly online
- Validity: Difficult to examine complex issues and opinions in depth and detail
- Lacks flexibility: Cannot ask follow-up questions or ask for clarification
- Response rate: For postal questionnaires may be low
- The meaning problem: The same word can mean different things to different respondents
- Imposition problem: Where the researcher risks forcing their own views or framework on the people being researched
E.I. - WHY might questionnaires have a low response rate? WHY might the use of questionnaires create an ‘imposition problem’? WHY is it important to ‘pilot’ a questionnaire?
What examples can be used in an exam answer to illustrate the use of questionnaires?
►Watch the video extract below for some examples:
Identify & explain one reason why the researchers described in the item below decided to use self completion questionnaires as a method of research
►Can you think of a second reason in addition to the one given below?
https://youtu.be/X-UFY05Jde4?t=7m14s
Identify & explain one reason why the researchers described in the item below decided to use semi-structured interviews as a method of research
►Can you think of a second reason in addition to the one given below?
https://youtu.be/pRH1IlesCKw?t=7m33s
Identify & Explain one reason why the researcher described in the item below decided to use participant observation as a method of research
►Can you think of a second reason in addition to the one given below?
https://youtu.be/8woKYEHqkcE?t=6m5s
What are some of the advantages of using unstructured & semi-structured interviews in sociological research?
Unstructured interviews = These interviews are more like a conversation, with the questions and answers not following any fixed predetermined path
Semi-structured interviews = These interviews have less flexibility than unstructured interviews and less rigidity than structured interviews
- Give more validity and depth than structured interviews/questionnaires
- Better understanding of things from the respondent’s point of view (verstehen)
- Allows for elaboration of responses
- Greater flexibility: can lead to the development of new ideas
E.I. WHY would these methods be preferred by sociologists adopting an interpretivist approach? WHY might these methods be particularly useful for ‘exploratory’ research? WHY might these methods improve validity?
What are some of the disadvantages of using unstructured & semi-structured interviews in sociological research?
Unstructured interviews = These interviews are more like a conversation, with the questions and answers not following any fixed predetermined path
Semi-structured interviews = These interviews have less flexibility than unstructured interviews and less rigidity than structured interviews
- Less reliable than structured interviews/questionnaires
- Less transparent than structured interviews/questionnaires (the selection of data may lead to an imposition problem)
- More time consuming and expensive
- Samples tend to be small with non-standardised questions making generalisations and production of statistics difficult
- Interviewer bias [interviews may give ‘socially expected’ answers].
E.I. WHY are these types of interviews less reliable? WHY might the selection of interview data lead to an ‘imposition problem’? WHY are these methods time consuming and expensive?
What examples can be used in an exam answer to illustrate the use of unstructured interviews & semi-structured interviews?
►Watch the video extract below for some examples:
What are the most effective ways of revising subject knowledge?
Use the ANSWER method below:
- Ask ‘How’’ and ‘Why’ questions when revising and try to connect ideas (this method is called ‘elaboration’)
- No cramming. Distribute your revision over time and used a spaced system of repetition
- Switch topics regularly when revising (this is called ‘interleaving’ and it will help you to identify connections between different topics)
- Words and visuals. Combine words and visual representations to create two ways of remembering key ideas (this is called ‘dual coding’)
- Examples. Your brain will find it easier to recall abstract ideas if you can relate concepts and theories to concrete examples
- Recall what you know. Scientific evidence suggests that ‘retrieval practice’ is much more effective than rereading and highlighting. Test yourself as much as possible and complete as many practice exam questions as you can. Ask your teacher for feedback on your practice
WATCH THE FOLLOWING VIDEO FOR MORE INFORMATION ON THESE TECHNIQUES: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CPxSzxylRCI
Identify and explain one reason why the researchers below decided to ask the women to keep diaries
►Can you think of a second reason in addition to the one given below?
https://youtu.be/k6WnMPClRi8?t=1m59s
Identify & explain one reason why the researcher described in the item below decided to use an ethnographic approach in his research
►Can you think of a second reason in addition to the one given below?
https://youtu.be/SJdemFNEkYw?t=1m26s
https://youtu.be/iiWugIylBYc?t=22s
What are some of the advantages of using structured interviews in sociological research?
Structured interviews = An interview where a set of identical questions are asked in exactly the same way to each interviewee. It is basically a questionnaire read out and the answers recorded by the interviewer
- Standardised data collection. (easy to compare respondents)
- High reliability (easy to replicate)
- Useful for large numbers (quick, cheap)
- The presence of the researcher can improve response rates
E.I. - WHY is this type of interview the easiest to replicate? WHY might this type of interview be the most practical to use?
What are some of the disadvantages of using structured interviews in sociological research?
Structured interviews = An interview where a set of identical questions are asked in exactly the same way to each interviewee. It is basically a questionnaire read out and the answers recorded by the interviewer
- May lack validity
- Lack of depth [questions may not cover respondent’s experiences]
- Lack of flexibility
- Meaning problem (the same question may beinterpreted in different ways by your interviewees)
E.I. -WHY might there be validity problems with the use of this method? WHY might it be difficult to develop rapport between the interviewer & interviewee?
What examples can be used in an exam answer to illustrate the use of structured interviews?
►Watch the video extract below for some examples:
Identify & Explain one reason why the researchers described in the item below decided to use questionnaires as a method of research
►Can you think of a second reason in addition to the one given below?
https://youtu.be/X-UFY05Jde4?t=7m14s
Identify & explain one reason why the researchers described in the item below decided to use unstructured interviews in their research
►Can you think of a second reason in addition to the one given below?
https://youtu.be/vLvpG1oPLWg?t=6m29s
What are some of the advantages of using participant observation in sociological research?
Participant observation = Involves a researcher actually joining the group she or he is observing, and taking part in their activities
- High ecological validity - see behaviour in its natural context
- Empathy - can understand individual meanings (verstehen)
- Can study non-verbal social interaction
- Useful for exploratory research of a group
- Depth, detail and richness of data collected
E.I. - HOW is this method linked to ethnography? HOW do the advantages of covert and overt participant observation compare?
What are some of the disadvantages of using participant observation in sociological research?
Participant observation = Involves a researcher actually joining the group she or he is observing, and taking part in their activities
- May be difficult getting in, staying and getting out of the group
- Resarchers may ‘go native’
- Low relaibility
- Hawthorne effect - people’s behaviour may change if they know they are being observed
- Hard to generalise
- Time consuming/labour intensive
E.I. - WHY might this be the most challenging method to carry out successfully? WHY might there be ethical problems with this method? WHY is this method extremely unreliable?
What examples can be used in an exam answer to illustrate the use of participant observation?
►Watch the video extract below for some examples:
Identify & explain one reason why the researchers described in the item below decided to use interviews as a method of research
►Can you think of a second reason in addition to the one given below?
https://youtu.be/vLvpG1oPLWg?t=6m29s
What are some of the advantages of using official statistics in sociological research?
Official statistics = Numerical data produced by national and local government bodies
- They are useful for practical reasons: they are usually easily available & cost little or nothing to use
- Sample sizes are often large and therefore more likely to be representative
- As they are usually gathered at regular intervals they enable the measurement of social trends over time
- Sometimes they are the only major source of information on a topic
E.I. - WHY is it important to make a distinction between ‘hard’ & ‘soft’ statistics? WHY are sample sizes large?
What are some of the disadvantages of using official statistics in sociological research?
Official statistics = Numerical data produced by national and local government bodies
- Data may lack validity because it was gathered for a different purpose, such as to set or meet government targets, rather than to tell the truth about what is happening in society
- The categories used in the official statistics may not correspond with those the sociologists is interested in
- Not all cases may be recorded (e.g. the ‘dark figure of crime’)
- The way that some statistics are collected changes over time
E.I. - WHY might it be argued that some forms of official statistics are ‘social constructions’ rather than ‘social facts’? WHY might political bias be an issue with some statistics?
What examples can be used in an exam answer to illustrate the use of official statistics?
►Watch the video extract below for some examples:
What are some of the advantages of using focus groups in sociological research?
Focus groups = Where a group of people will be encouraged to discuss an issue, with the researcher acting as a moderator or facilitator helping to keep the discussion on topic and encourage all members of the group to participate
- They can be used when the researcher is particularly interested in the interaction between the people being interviewed
- Focus groups provide a supportive environment for people to express themselves
- It collects information from several respondents more quickly & therefore more cheaply than using one to one interviews
- The group members can influence the discussion, perhaps introducing ideas that the researcher had not considered
E.I. - WHY might participants feel more comfortable in a focus group compared to a normal interview? WHY might focus groups generate new ideas?
What are some of the disadvantages of using focus groups in sociological research?
Focus groups = Where a group of people will be encouraged to discuss an issue, with the researcher acting as a moderator or facilitator helping to keep the discussion on topic and encourage all members of the group to participate
- They can become influenced by one or two dominant people in the session
- It is difficult to have the participants share their real feelings towards some sensitive topics publicly
- Out of fear in going against the opinion of the moderator, or even out of fear of disappointing the moderator, participants may not disclose their true and honest opinions
E.I. - HOW might the moderator of a focus group lead the participants into making certain assumptions about an idea? HOW do the points above undermine the validity of this method? WHY might the results of some focus groups lack representativeness?
Identify & explain one reason why the researchers described in the item below decided to use focus groups as a method of research
►Can you think of a second reason in addition to the one given below?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZLw0YXcseG0
What is quantitative research & what are the main quantitative methods used in sociological research?
Quantitative research is based on numerical data and it is used to discover patterns of social behaviour and if possible to establish causal relationships or correlations. This type of research is favoured by positivists who think that social research should be scientific. Positivists aim to produce reliable data so they will use methods that can be replicated.
The main quantitative methods are:
- Experiments
- Questionnaires
- Structured interviews
- Non-participant observation
- Use of secondary data from official statistics
E.I. - WHY are the methods above associated with quantitative research? WHY are quantitative methods usually more reliable than qualitative methods?
Explain some of the strengths of quantitative research in sociology
- Numerical data can be easily analysed (e.g. Using a computer and statistical packages).
- The analysis of numerical data can be used to identify correlations and causal relationships
- It can be used on large samples, increasing generalisability and representativeness
- As quantitative methods are usually tightly structured they can be replicated. This increases reliability
- Some quantitative methods, for example questionnaires, are very practical because they are relatively quick to administer
E.I. - WHY are quantitative methods favoured by positivists? WHY is it relatively easy to communicate the findings of quantitative research? WHY might it be easier to obtain funding for quantitative research compared with qualitative research?
Explain some of the weaknesses of quantitative research in sociology
- Quantitative methods do not provide for depth of understanding or meaning, so they are mostly descriptive of behaviour
- Numerical data may not capture nuances, complex issues or offer a context
- The formal and structured nature of quantitative research may feel unnatural, so people will not and tell the truth
- Quantitative methods may lack validity due to the imposition problem. This might mean that researchers are unable to capture people’s personal experiences in the rich detail associated with qualitative research
E.I. - WHY might quantitative methods fail to capture the reasons and meanings behind social behaviour? WHY might the use of quantitative methods lead to an imposition problem and how might this undermine the objectivity of the research? WHY might quantitative methods lack ecological validity?
Explain why different forms of sampling are used in social research
Sample = A group selected by the researcher from the target population for study purposes
Probability sampling = A technical term for random sampling techniques which are based on an unbiased method of choosing the sample that gives everyone in the target population an equal or known chance of being included
Non-probability sampling = A technical term for non-random sampling techniques where human judgement is involved in the selection of the sample
- When practical factors allow, (e.g. time and access to a sample frame), researchers will generally prefer to use probability sampling techniques (e.g. random and stratified sampling) as the sample is more likely to be representative
- Probability sampling techniques may also be chosen as they are likely to be more unbiased and reliable
- For many pieces of research probability sampling is neither practical or possible. This means researchers have to use non probability sampling techniques
- E.g. If research has to be carried out quickly and at low cost researchers might have to use non-probability methods like opportunity and quota sampling
- Researchers may have to use snowball sampling if they want to gain access to sensitive, criminal or hidden groups
- In qualitative research, purposive sampling is frequently used as a method (i.e. rather than selecting people by random selection you are making a judgement about which kind of people or settings you need for the purposes of your research topic)
E.I. - WHY is probability sampling likely to be more representative and generalisable than non-probability sampling? WHY is non-probability research likely to lead to greater researcher and respondent bias than probability sampling? WHY is snowball sampling suited to sensitive, criminal or hidden groups? WHY is purposive sampling often used in qualitative research designs?
What examples can be used in an exam answer to illustrate the use of sampling methods?
►Watch the video extract below for some examples:
What are some of the advantages of using longitudinal studies in sociological research?
Longitudinal study = Involves a study of a sample of people who are investigated (usually by questionnaires or interviews), not only at the time of the original selection, but also at regular intervals afterwards
- They make it possible to study change over time, and provide detail on the changes that occur
- As long as the sample remains the same, it may be possible to discover the causes of changes
- Studies which ask people about past events rely on human memories, and people may also distort or exaggerate past events. Longitudinal studies help to avoid this
E.I. WHAT types of sociological topics would benefit from a longitudinal study?
What are some of the disadvantages of using longitudinal studies in sociological research?
Longitudinal study = Involves a study of a sample of people who are investigated (usually by questionnaires or interviews), not only at the time of the original selection, but also at regular intervals afterwards
- Sample attrition (i.e. Where the original sample used in a longitudinal study gets smaller)
- Those in the sample are conscious of the fact that they are being studied
- There is the problem of the cost of conducting research over a long period of time
E.I. - WHY might there be considerable sample attrition whilst carrying out a longitudinal study? HOW might point no.2 impact upon the validity of the data collected?
Explain the strengths of using more than one method in sociological research
Key terms:
Methodological pluralism = use of several methods
Triangulation = several methods to check validity and reliability
- To provide qualitative data to check or back up the findings of quantitative data (or vice versa)
- To check the findings of secondary data by primary research
- To overcome doubts about the representativeness and generalisability of research
- To build up a fuller picture of the population being studied
- To overcome or compensate for the limitations of one method by the advantages of other methods
- To make the research more reliable by collecting data by a variety of methods
- To check the validity of findings obtained by one research method by using another
E.I. = WHY might you be able to check the reliability and validity of your data by using quantatitaive and qualitative research methods as part of a research design?
How should I structure my answer to the thirty mark question on the component two exam?
►Watch the following screencast for a full explanation of how to answer the 30 mark question on the C2 exam paper
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vSMAEEo3dqo
What are some of the advantages of using secondary data in sociological research?
Secondary data = Information which has been collected previously, by someone else, other than the researcher. Secondary data can either be qualitative, such as diaries, newspapers or government reports (collectively known as ‘documents’), or quantitative, as with official statistics, such as crime statistics
- There is a lot of it! It is the richest vein of information available to researchers in many topic areas. Also, some large data sets might not exist if it wasn’t for the government collecting data
- Sometimes documents and official statistics might be the only means of researching the past
- Official statistics may be especially useful for making comparisons over time. The U.K. Census for example goes back to 1851
- At a practical level, many public documents and official statistics are freely available to the researcher
E.I. - WHY might some large data sets not exist if it wasn’t for the government collecting data? WHY has the internet made it easier for sociologists to make use of secondary data?
What are some of the disadvantages of using secondary data in sociological research?
Secondary data = Information which has been collected previously, by someone else, other than the researcher. Secondary data can either be qualitative, such as diaries, newspapers or government reports (collectively known as ‘documents’), or quantitative, as with official statistics, such as crime statistics
- Official statistics may reflect the biases of those in power – limiting what you can find out
- Official statistics – the way things are measured may change over time, making historical comparisons difficult (As with crime statistics, the definition of crime keeps changing.)
- Documents may lack authenticity– parts of the document might be missing because of age, and we might not even be to verify who actually wrote the document, meaning we cannot check whether its biased or not
- Representativeness – documents may not be representative of the wider population –especially a problem with older documents. Many documents do not survive because they are not stored, and others deteriorate with age and become unusable. Other documents are deliberately withheld from researchers and the public gaze, and therefore do not become available
E.I. - WHY might official statistics be politically biased? HOW can point no.2 be linked to the concept of ‘reliability’?
What are some of the advantages of using personal documents in sociological research?
Personal documents = Include items such as letters, diaries, photo albums and autobiographies. These are first-person accounts of social events and personal experiences and often include the writer’s feelings and attitudes (also known as ‘life documents’)
- Fairly high degree of validity – especially if the author writes them without any foreknowledge of their possible sociological use (e.g. diaries and letters)
- Insight – they tell about events from those ‘on the inside’
- Sometimes personal documents are the only records of a particular group or activity, especially those that operate in secrecy
E.I. - WHY might personal documents have a high degree of validity? WHY might the use of personal documents be favoured by Interpretivists?
What are some of the disadvantages of using personal documents in sociological research?
Personal documents = Include items such as letters, diaries, photo albums and autobiographies. These are first-person accounts of social events and personal experiences and often include the writer’s feelings and attitudes (also known as ‘life documents’)
- Surviving documents may not be representative
- They are open to differing interpretations
- They are highly subjective – the same events discussed in a diary might be described very differently by someone else
- The content may be influenced by the identity of the person or people intended to read the document
E.I. WHY might Positivists be critical of the use of personal documents in sociological research? WHY might it be difficult to interpret the ‘meaning’ of a personal document correctly? WHY might point no.4 be linked to the concept of ‘credibility’?
What is qualitative research & what are the main qualitative methods used in sociological research?
Qualitative research makes use of non-numerical data. It is based on the idea that social research should seek meaning and understanding (verstehen). Interpretivists argue that we should seek a deep understanding of people’s experiences using qualitative research.
The main qualitative methods are:
- Observations (especially participant observation, often as part of an ethnographic research design)
- Unstructured and semi-structured interviews
- Focus groups
- The use of secondary data from personal documents such as letters and diaries
E.I. - WHY are the methods above associated with qualitative data? WHY might a qualitative approach lead to more validity than a quantitative approach?
Explain some of the strengths of qualitative research in sociology
- Data provide understanding of people’s personal expeirences and can offer rich detail and therefore more validity
- The research often takes place in a natural setting so people are relaxed and good rapport can be developed
- Qualitative research is better for explaining why things happen than quantitative research
- More respondent-led, avoids the imposition problem
- Good for exploring issues the researcher knows little about
E.I. - WHY might qualitative reserach be particularly useful for studying sensistive topics? WHY might qualitative research be better than quantitative research for explaining ‘why’ things happen? WHY is a qualitative research useful for exploring issues the researcher knows little about?
Explain some of the weaknesses of qualitative research in sociology
- Qualitative research is unlikely to be either representative or generalisable of a wider population
- There are practical difficulties including the time needed to collect and analyse data
- Qualitative methods very much depend on the skills and personality of the reseracher
- Qualitative methods are very difficult to replicate and therefore lack reliability
- There may be ethical issues of intrusion and revelation of people’s lives. Anonymity and confidentiality may be compromised
- The researcher may become too close to their research subject and even risk ‘going native’
E.I. - WHY is it difficut to generalise from qualitative studies? WHY is it difficult to replicate qualitative methods? WHY might qualitative research lack objectivity?
What are the advantages of using social surveys in sociological research?
Social survey = A research design where the researcher gathers standardised information from a representative cross section of their target population (usually large). This data is often gathered using self-completion questionnaires and/or structured interviews. Respondents are usually selected by either some form of probabilty sampling or quota sampling.
- The use of questionnaires helps to make the data collection reliable
- Social survey research designs make use of sampling techniques that are likely to provide the researcher with a representative cross section of the target population
- Social surveys are a useful research design for studying and generalising about large populations
- Positivists favour this type of research design as it produces quantitative data that can be used to identify trends and correlations
- Positivists also favour the use of questionnaire based surveys because they are a detached and objective (unbiased) method, where the sociologist’s personal involvement with respondents is kept to a minimum.
E.I. - WHY are social surveys often used when studying large populations? WHY can social surveys be a useful way of establishing statistical correlations? WHY are social surveys reliable?
What are the disadvantages of using social surveys in sociological research?
Social survey = A research design where the researcher gathers standardised information from a representative cross section of their target population (usually large). This data is often gathered using self-completion questionnaires and/or structured interviews. Respondents are usually selected by either some form of probabilty sampling or quota sampling.
- The imposition problem – When the researcher chooses the questions, they are deciding what is important rather than the respondent, and with closed ended questions the respondent has to fit their answers into what’s on offer. The result is that the respondent may not be able to express themselves in the way that want to.
- Although survey research may provide the researcher with representative data this data may be farily shallow and lacking in depth, detail and context
- The representativeness of social survey research designs may be compromised if the researcher is unable to access a comprehensive sampling frame for the target population
- The use of self completion questionnaires in survey research may lead to a low response rate
E.I. - WHY might Interpretivists be critical of social surveys? HOW does the failure of recent opinion polls to accurately predict the outcome of recent political elections highlight the problems with surveys? WHY might ‘validity’ be a key problem with survey research?
Explain some of the practical issues that researchers face when conducting research
Practical issues = include such things as the amount of time the research will take, how much it will cost, whether you can achieve funding, opportunities for research including ease of access to respondents, and the personal skills and characteristics of the researcher.
- The amount of time they have to conduct the research. Some types of research designs (e.g. ethnographic and longitudinal studies) may be impractical for this reason
- The amount of money they have to spend on the research. This will inevitably impose constrains on various aspects of the research design such as the size and scope of the study (e.g sample size)
- Requirements of funding bodies. Many funding bodies favour quantitative research methods over qualitative methods so this may also be a practical constraint on the nature of the research.
- Access – it may be practically difficult to gain access to certain types of groups and information.
- Personal skills and characteristics of the researcher (e.g. it would not be practical for an older researcher to conduct covert participant observation of a youth subculture)
- Sometimes choice of methods is practically constrained by the original aim or purpose of the study (e.g. if the researcher aims to investigate the past secondary sources may be the only option)
E.I. - WHY might some funding bodies have a preference for quantitative research? WHY might it be difficult to access some types of groups and information?
Explain some of the theoretical issues that might influence sociological research
Theoretical issues = There is a theoretical debate about the best overall approach for researching human societies. Some sociologists have advocated an approach that closely follows the principles of the natural sciences. In contrast, other sociologists have argued that the subject matter of sociology, (people and society), requires a fundamentally different approach
- Positivists argues that society should be understood using scientific methods of research in order to uncover the causes of social behaviour
- Positivists prefer quantitative research methods and are generally more concerned with reliability and representativeness
- Interpretivists believe that the purpose of research is to understand how people interpret the world in order to give meaning to what they do
- Interpretivists prefer qualitative research methods and are prepared to sacrifice reliability and representativeness to gain deeper insight which should provide higher validity
- Many sociologists adopt a more pragmatic approach and combine elements of Positivism & Interpretivism (these types of sociologists are sometimes called ‘realists’)
E.I. - WHY might positivist research be more objective than interpretivist research? WHY is ‘relaibility’ a core principle of science?
What are the advantages of using an ethnographic research design in sociological research?
Ethnography = A qualitative research design which studies the way of life of a group people. It aims to see the world from the perspective of the group being studied. Ethnographers will often use multiple qualitative methods but participant observation over a long period of time is usually the main method.
- Ethnographic studies provide the richest and most detailed insights into different groups and cultures. These insights can shed light on the meanings behind people’s behaviour (‘verstehen’)
- By carrying out research in the everyday life environments of participants it helps to identify discrepancies between what people say they do and what they actually do
- The length of time researchers spend doing their fieldwork will reduce the ‘hawthorne effect’
- Ethnographic studies are particularly useful for studying social groups that may be considered deviant or hard to reach from the perspective of the mainstream culture
E.I. - WHY does ethnography reduce the bias arising from the ‘hawthorne effect’? WHY is ethnography useful for studying social groups that may be considered deviant or hard to reach?
What are the disadvantages of using an ethnographic research design in sociological research?
Ethnography = A qualitative research design which studies the way of life of a group people. It aims to see the world from the perspective of the group being studied. Ethnographers will often use multiple qualitative methods but participant observation over a long period of time is usually the main method.
- A practical disadvantage is the time and personal committment required to complete the field work
- There is a risk that the researcher may ‘go native’
- Ethnographic research is seen as unscientific as it cannot easily be replicated
- There may be ethical issues involved in the study of some groups and cultures
- It may be diificult to gain entry to certain groups
E.I. - WHY might it be difficult to get funding for ethnographic research? WHY might there be more ethical issues involved with ethnography compared to other research designs?
What are the advantages of using case studies in sociological research?
Case study = A detailed study of a single example of whatever the sociologist is interested in – for example, a person, a school, a village, a firm, a social event etc.
Life History = A case study of the life of a particular individual. This is often based on a series of in-depth interviews with the individual concerned
- A particular case study can be used to test the usefulness of theories of social life (e.g. you could assess theories about the effectiveness of development aid in this way)
- They may be useful in generating new hypotheses which can then be tested by further research
- They enable the researcher to see the world from the point of view of the individual or group being studied
E.I. - HOW might a case study approach be useful in helping researchers to evaluate the usefulness of different theories?
What are the disadvantages of using case studies in sociological research?
Case study = A detailed study of a single example of whatever the sociologist is interested in – for example, a person, a school, a village, a firm, a social event etc.
Life History = A case study of the life of a particular individual. This is often based on a series of in-depth interviews with the individual concerned
- They may not be representative, and it may therefore not be possible to generalise on the basis of the findings
- Life histories view the past from the standpoint of the present. This raise questions about the accuracy of recall of facts, and the benefit of hindsight might generate a reinterpretation of the past. This might raise questions about the validity of such research
E.I. - WHY might case studies lack representativeness?
