Indian art and culture

Question 1

Char Dham pilgrimage?

Answer 1

1. proposed four-lane expressway to Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath and Bardinath in UK
2. The highway will be called Char Dham Mahamarg(Char Dham Highway) and the highway construction project will be called as Char Dham Mahamarg Vikas Pariyojana
3. among the flagship projects of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.
4. SC constituted a High Powered Committee to look into Env concerns
   
   • members: Representatives from Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Physical Research Laboratory under government’s space department and Ministry of Defence
   • It shall consider cumulative and independent impact of Chardham project on entire Himalayan valleys.
   • Committee will also suggest areas in which afforestation should be taken and kind of saplings to be planted.

Question 2

Shyamoli?

Answer 2

It is the heritage house of Rabindranath Tagore. It was recently inaugurated.

Shyamoli is an experimental mud-house built at Santiniketan in 1935. The house has been recently renovated by the Archaeological Survey of India as a deposit work and is a property of Visva-Bharati at present.

Question 3

Know India Programme?

Answer 3

1. Know India Programme is a flagship programme of Ministry of External Affairs for engagement with Indian origin youth (between 18-30 years) to enhance their awareness about India, its cultural heritage, art and to familiarise them with various aspects of contemporary India.
2. Eligibility: Minimum qualification required for participating in KIP is graduation from a recognized University /Institute or enrolled for graduation and ability to speak in English.
3. The applicant should not have visited India through any previous Programme of Government of India. Those who have not visited India before will be given preference.

Question 4

Aadi Mahotsav?

Answer 4

1. It is a joint initiative of Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India & TRIFED
2. Mahotsav will comprise of display and sale of items of tribal art and craft, tribal medicine & healers, tribal cuisine and display of tribal folk performance, in which tribal artisans, chefs, folk dancers/musicians from 23 States of the country shall participate and provide glimpse of their rich traditional culture.

Question 5

Navroz festival?

Answer 5

1. It is a Parsi New Year festival celebrated to mark the beginning of the new Iranian calendar.
2. While the Balkans, the Caucasus, the Middle Easterns celebrate the festival on March 21, the first day of the Zoroastrian calendar, in India there is another version of the festival that is followed according to the Shahanshahi calendar and falls during the later months of the year. The dates change every year since the calendar doesn’t account for leap years.
3. Also known as Pateti, Navroz will be celebrated on August 17th this year in India.
4. Navroz is also known as Jamshed-i-Navroz after the Persian King, Jamshed, who is credited to have created the Persian Calendar known as the Shahenshahi Calendar.
5. The time of the festival is decided in Iran and then it is passed on to the entire Zoroastrian population in the world.

Question 6

Maharshi Badrayan Vyas Samman’ Awards?

Answer 6

1. conferred on persons in recognition of their substantial contribution in the field of Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Pali, Prakrit, Classical Oriya, Classical Kannada, Classical Telugu and Classical Malayalam.
2. Introduced in the year 2002.
3. Eligibility: Given to selected young scholars in the age group of 30 to 45 years.
4. Carries a certificate of honour, a memento and a one-time cash prize of Rs.1 lakh.
5. maharshi Badrayan:
   
   1. an Indian philosopher about whom almost no personal details are reliably known.
   2. Badarayana is regarded as having written the basic text of the Vedanta system, the Vedāntasūtrak.a. Brahmasūtra.
   3. He is thus considered the founder of the Vedānta system of philosophy.
   4. The date of Badarayana and his Brahma Sutras is uncertain. Different scholars have dated the Brahma Sutras variously from 500 BCE to 450 BCE.

Question 7

Brahma sutras?

Answer 7

1. The text systematizes and summarizes the philosophical and spiritual ideas in the Upanishads. It is one of the foundational texts of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy.
2. Credited to Maharshi Badrayan
3. Brahma sutras consists of 555 aphoristic verses (sutras) in four chapters. These verses are primarily about the nature of human existence and universe, and ideas about the metaphysical concept of Ultimate Reality called Brahman.
   
   1. The first chapter discusses the metaphysics of Absolute Reality.
   2. The second chapter reviews and addresses the objections raised by the ideas of competing orthodox schools of Hindu philosophies as well as heterodox schools such as Buddhism and Jainism.
   3. The third chapter discusses epistemology and path to gaining spiritually liberating knowledge.
   4. The last chapter states why such a knowledge is an important human need.

Question 8

Bir Chilarai?

Answer 8

Bir Chilarai (1510 – 1571 CE) was a brave warrior and general of the Assamese Koch royal dynasty.

He was the younger brother of Nara Narayan, the king of the Kamata Kingdom.

Question 9

What are Sattras?

Answer 9

• Sattras are monastic institutions created as part of the 16th century Neo-Vaishnavite reformist movement started by Vaishnavite saint-reformer Srimanta Sankaradeva
• Today, Sattras are spread across the state, promulgating Sankardeva’s unique “worship through art” approach with music (borgeet), dance (xattriya) and theatre (bhauna).
• There are about 900 Sattras across Assam, but the main centres are Bordowa (Nagaon), Majuli and Barpeta
• Each Sattra has a naamghar (worship hall) as its nucleus and is headed by an influential “Sattradhikar”.
• Monks, known as bhakats, are inducted into Sattras at a young age. They may or may not be celibate, depending on the kind of Sattra they are inducted into.
• During the Ahom reign, the Sattras received a lot of donations in the form of land or money from the kings.

Question 10

What is Sankardeva’s philosophy?

Answer 10

Sankardeva propagated a form of Bhakti called eka-sharana-naam-dhrama, and espoused a society based on equality and fraternity, free from caste differences, orthodox Brahmanical rituals and sacrifices.

His teaching focused on prayer and chanting (naam) instead of idol worship.

His dharma was based on the four components of deva (god), naam (prayers), bhakats (devotees), and guru (teacher).

As the saint travelled across Assam,Sattras/Thans were established as centres of religious, social and cultural reforms in the 16th century.

Question 11

Bao Dhaan?

Answer 11

Iron-rich ‘red rice’ is grown in the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam without the use of any chemical fertilizer. This variety of rice is referred to as ‘Bao-dhaan’, which is an integral part of the Assamese food culture.

Assam’s Bao-dhaan is being exported to America now.

Question 12

Kavindracharya Saraswati was in the court of ?

Answer 12

shahenshah

Question 13

Who authored Sirr-i-Akbari?

Answer 13

Dara Shukoh, son of Shahanshah, believed that upanishads will help understand quran better, so he had upanishads translated

Question 14

Jnapith award started in ? T/F: eligibility for Jnapith award is Any INDIAN citizen who writes in any of the scheduled languages of India

Answer 14

1961 F; Any Indian citizen who writes in any of the official languages of India

Question 15

What is Operation ‘Clean Art’?

Answer 15

first pan India operation to crackdown on the smuggling of mongoose hair.

Question 16

Hornbill festival?

Answer 16

-> Nagas; also called the “Festival of Festivals” ->pays tribute to Hornbill, the most admired and revered bird for the Nagas for its qualities of alertness and grandeur. -> established on 1st December 1963 and was inaugurated by the then President Dr. S Radhakrishnan

Question 17

karkabhat?

Answer 17

Megalithic burial site in Chhatisgarh

Question 18

Dipadih?

Answer 18

Temple complex dating back to the 7th Century in Chhatisgarh

contains the remnants of the Shaiv and Shakya sects.

Question 19

ghotul?

Answer 19

• It is both an ancient tribal system of education as well as the campus with its own system of hierarchs
• It is an integral part of Gond and Muria tribal life in regions of Chhattisgarh and the neighboring areas in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
• It is a place for youths, an independent and autonomous “children’s republic”
• The ghotul is central to social and religious life in Gond society. According to Gond legend, Lingo, the supreme deity, created the first ghotul
• It has an elder facilitator with young, unmarried boys and girls as its members. Girl members of the ghotul are called motiaris, while boy members are called cheliks.
• The members are taught lessons of cleanliness, discipline, and hard work. They are taught to take pride in their appearance and to respect themselves and their elders. They are also taught the idea of public service.

Question 20

Sonabai?

Answer 20

Famous bas relief ornamentation works of Chhattisgarh got its roots when Sonabai made little toys for her son Daroga Ram to lull him to sleep

Question 21

Tulu language?

Answer 21

1. Tulu is a Dravidian language spoken mainly in two coastal districts Dakshina Kannada and Udupi of Karnataka and Kasaragod district of Kerala.
2. ~18 L speakers in total
3. Some scholars suggest Tulu is among the earliest Dravidian languages with a history of 2000 years. Robert Caldwell (1814-1891), in his book, A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages, called Tulu “one of the most highly developed languages of the Dravidian family”.
4. Tulu speakers have been requesting the govt to give it official language status and include it in eighth schedule
5. Tulu has a rich oral literature tradition with folk-song forms like paddana, and traditional folk theatre yakshagana. Tulu also has an active tradition of cinema with around 5 to 7 Tulu language movies produced a year.

Question 22

Classification of stone age in three ages?

Answer 22

• Palaeolithic age (old stone age): Period – 500,000 – 10,000 BCE
• Mesolithic age (late stone age): Period – 10,000 – 6000 BCE
• Neolithic age (new stone age): Period – 6000 – 1000 BCE

Question 23

Paleolithic age in India: main characterestics?

Answer 23

1. The old stone age or palaeolithic culture of India developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age, which is a geological period of the age when the earth was covered with ice and the weather was so cold that human or plant life could not survive. But in the tropical region, where ice melted, the earliest species of men could exist.
2. The Indian people are believed to have belonged to the ‘Negrito’ race, and lived in the open air, river valleys, caves and rock shelters.
3. They were food gatherers, ate wild fruits and vegetables, and lived on hunting.
4. There was no knowledge of houses, pottery, agriculture. It was only in later stages they discovered fire.
5. In the upper palaeolithic age, there is evidence of art in the form of paintings.
6. Humans used unpolished, rough stones like hand axes, choppers, blades, burins and scrapers.
7. Palaeolithic men are also called ‘Quartzite’ men in India as the stone tools were made of a hard rock called quartzite.
8. The old stone age or palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases according to the nature of the stone tools used by the people and also according to the nature of the change of climate.

Question 24

Paleolithic age in India: Lower Paleolithic age?

Answer 24

Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC

• It covers the greater part of the Ice Age.
• Hunters and food gatherers; tools used were hand axes, choppers and cleavers. Tools were rough and heavy.
• One of the earliest lower Palaeolithic sites is Bori in Maharashtra.
• Limestone was also used to make tools.
• There are habitation sites including caves and rock shelters.
• An important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.

Question 25

Paleolithic age in India: Lower Paleolithic age: important sites?

Answer 25

• Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age
  
  • Soan valley (in present Pakistan)
  • Sites in the Thar Desert
  • Kashmir
  • Mewar plains
  • Saurashtra
  • Gujarat
  • Central India
  • Deccan Plateau
  • Chotanagpur plateau
  • North of the Cauvery River
  • Belan valley in UP

Question 26

Paleolithic age in India: Middle Paleolithic age?

Answer 26

Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC

• Tools used were flakes, blades, pointers, scrapers and borers.
• The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner.
• There was a decrease in the use of hand axes with respect to other tools.

Question 27

Paleolithic age in India: Middle Paleolithic age: important sites?

Answer 27

• Important middle Palaeolithic age sites
  
  • Belan valley in UP
  • Luni valley (Rajasthan)
  • Son and Narmada rivers
  • Bhimbetka
  • Tungabhadra river valleys
  • Potwar Plateau (between Indus & Jhelum)
  • Sanghao cave (near Peshawar, Pakistan)

Question 28

Paleolithic age in India: Upper Paleolithic age?

Answer 28

Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC

• The upper palaeolithic age coincided with the last phase of the ice age when the climate became comparatively warmer and less humid.
• Emergence of Homo sapiens.
• The period is marked by innovation in tools and technology. A lot of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, parallel-sided blades, fishing tools and burin tools.

Question 29

Paleolithic age in India: Upper Paleolithic age: important sites?

Answer 29

• Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age
  
  • Bhimbhetka (South of Bhopal) – hand axes and cleavers, blades, scrapers and a few burins have been found here.
  • Belan
  • Son
  • Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar)
  • Maharashtra
  • Orissa and
  • The Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh
  • Bone tools have been found only at cave sites of Kurnool and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh.

Question 30

Mesolithic age in India: main characterestics?

Answer 30

• Both Mesolithic and Neolithic phases belong to the Holocene era. In this era, there was a rise in temperature, the climate became warm which resulted in melting of ice and also brought changes in flora and fauna.
• The people of this age lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering initially but later on they also domesticated animals and cultivated plants, thereby paving the way for agriculture.
• The first animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog. Sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals.
• The Mesolithic people lived in semi-permanent settlements along with occupying caves and open grounds.
• The people of this era believed in life after death and hence they buried the dead with food items and other goods.
• The characteristic tools of this era were microliths – the miniature stone tools usually made of crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony or chert, both of geometrical and non-geometrical shapes. They were not only used as tools but were also used to make composite tools, spearheads, arrowheads, and sickles after hafting them on wooden or bone handles. These microliths enabled the Mesolithic man to hunt smaller animals and birds.
• The Mesolithic men started to wear clothes made of animal skin.
• The Mesolithic people were art lovers and initiated rock art. The subject matter of these paintings was mostly wild animals and hunting scenes, dancing and food collection were also depicted in such paintings. These rock paintings give an idea about the development of religious practices and also reflect the division of labour on the basis of gender.
• The first human colonization of the Ganga Plains happened during this period.

Question 31

Mesolithic age in India: important mesolithic sites?

Answer 31

• Bagor in Rajasthan is one of the biggest and best-documented Mesolithic sites in India. Bagor is on river Kothari where microliths along with animal bones and shells have been excavated.
• Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh provides the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals.
• There are about 150 Mesolithic rock art sites across India, with a rich concentration in Central India such as Bhimbetka caves (Madhya Pradesh), Kharwar, Jaora and Kathotia (M.P), Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Odisha), Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala).
• Microliths have also been found in some valleys of river Tapi, Sabarmati, Narmada, and Mahi.
• Langhnaj in Gujarat and Biharanpur in West Bengal are also important Mesolithic sites. Bones of wild animals (rhinoceros, blackbuck, etc.) have been excavated from Langhnaj. Several human skeletons and a large number of microliths have been recovered from these places.
• Though pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites, they have been found in Langhnaj (Gujarat) and in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (U.P).

Question 32

Neolithic age in India: main characterestics?

Answer 32

• It is also termed as ‘Neolithic revolution’ since it introduced a lot of important changes in man’s social and economic life. The Neolithic age saw man turning into a food producer from food gatherer.
• Tools and Weapons – The people used microlithic blades in addition to tools made of polished stones. The use of celts was especially important for ground and polished hand axes. They also used tools and weapons made of bones – such as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, etc. The use of new polished tools made it easier for humans to cultivate, hunt and perform other activities in a better manner.
• Agriculture – The people of the Neolithic age cultivated land and grew fruits and corn like ragi and horse gram (kulati). They also domesticated cattle, sheep and goats.
• Pottery – With the advent of agriculture, people were required to store their food grains as well as to cook, eat the product, etc. That’s why it is said that pottery appeared in this phase on a large scale. The pottery of this period was classified under greyware, black-burnished ware, and mat impressed ware. In the initial stages of the Neolithic age, handmade pottery was made but later on, foot wheels were used to make pots.
• Housing and Settled Life – The people of Neolithic age lived in rectangular or circular houses which were made of mud and reeds. Neolithic men also knew how to make boats and could spin cotton, wool and weave cloth. The people of the Neolithic age led a more settled life and paved the way for the beginning of civilization.
• The neolithic people did not live far away from the hilly areas. They inhabited mainly the hilly river valleys, rock shelters and the slopes of the hills, since they were entirely dependent on weapons and tools made of stone.

Question 33

Neolithic age in India: important Neolithic sites?

Answer 33

• Koldihwa and Mahagara (lying south of Allahabad) – This site provides evidence of circular huts along with crude hand made pottery. There is also evidence of rice, which is the oldest evidence of rice, not only in India but anywhere in the world.
• Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) – The earliest Neolithic site, where people lived in houses built of sun-dried bricks and cultivated crops like cotton and wheat.
• Burzahom (Kashmir) – The domestic dogs were buried along with their masters in their graves; people lived in pits and used tools made of polished stones as well as bones.
• Gufkral (Kashmir) – This neolithic site is famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyards in houses.
• Chirand (Bihar) – The neolithic men used tools and weapons made of bones.
• Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski, Takkalakota, Hallur (Karnataka) – The people were cattle herders. They domesticated sheep and goats. Ash mounds have been found.
• Belan Valley (which is located on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas and middle part of Narmada valley) – All the three phases i.e., palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic ages are found in sequence.

Question 34

Chalcolithic age in India: main characterestics?

Answer 34

• The Chalcolithic Age marked the emergence of the use of metal along with stone tools. The first metal to be used was copper. The chalcolithic age largely applied to the pre-Harappan phase, but in many parts of the country, it appears after the end of the bronze Harappan culture.
• Agriculture & cattle rearing – The people living in the stone-copper age domesticated animals and cultivated food grains. They domesticated cows, sheep, goats, pig and buffaloes and hunted deer. It is not clear whether they were acquainted with the horse or not. People ate beef but did not take pork on any considerable scale. The people of the Chalcolithic phase produced wheat and rice, they also cultivated bajra. They also produced several pulses such as lentil (masur), black gram, green gram, and grass pea. Cotton was produced in the black cotton soil of the Deccan and ragi, bajra and several millets were cultivated in the lower Deccan. The people belonging to the stone-copper phase in the eastern regions lived mainly on fish and rice, which is still a popular diet in that part of the country.
• Pottery – The people of the stone-copper phase used different types of pottery, one of which is called black and red pottery and seems to have been widely prevalent in that era. The ochre-coloured pottery was also popular. The potter’s wheel was used and painting with white linear designs was also done.
• Rural settlements – The people living in the stone age were characterised by rural settlements and were not acquainted with burnt bricks. They lived in thatched houses made of mud bricks. This age also marked the beginning of social inequalities, as chiefs lived in rectangular houses while the commoners lived in round huts. Their villages consisted of more than 35 houses of different sizes, circular or rectangular in shape. The chalcolithic economy is considered as a village economy.
• Art and Craft – The chalcolithic people were expert coppersmiths. They knew the art of copper smelting and were good stone workers as well. They knew spinning and weaving and were well acquainted with the art of manufacturing cloth. However, they did not know the art of writing.
• Worship – Small clay images of earth goddesses have been found from the chalcolithic sites. It is thus possible to say that they venerated the Mother Goddess. In Malwa and Rajasthan, stylised bull terracottas show that the bull served as a religious cult.
• Infant mortality – Infant mortality was high among the Chalcolithic people, as is evident from the burial of a large number of children in West Maharashtra. In spite of being a food-producing economy, the rate of infant mortality was very high. We can say that the Chalcolithic social and economic pattern did not promote longevity.
• Jewellery – The Chalcolithic people were fond of ornaments and decoration. The women wore ornaments of shell and bone and carried finely worked combs in their hair. They manufactured beads of semi-precious stones such as carnelian, steatite, and quartz crystal.

Question 35

Chalcolithic age in India: importat chalcolithic sites in India?

Answer 35

• Ahar (Banas valley, South Eastern Rajasthan) – The people of this region practised smelting and metallurgy, supplied copper tools to other contemporary communities. Rice was cultivated here.
• Gilund (Banas valley, Rajasthan) – Stone blade industry was discovered here.
• Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) – The largest Jorwe culture site in Godavari valley. It is famous for recovery of bronze goods such as bronze rhinoceros, elephant, two wheeled chariot with a rider and a buffalo.
• Malwa (Madhya Pradesh) – The settlements of Malwa culture are mostly located on the Narmada and its tributaries. It provides evidence of the richest chalcolithic ceramics, and also spindle whorls.
• Kayatha (Madya Pradesh) – The settlement of Kayatha culture was mostly located on the Chambal River and its tributaries. Houses had mud-plastered floors, pre-Harappan elements in pottery along with copper objects with sharp cutting edges were found.
• Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur (Bihar), Mahishdal (West Bengal) – These are the prominent chalcolithic sites in these states.
• Songaon, Inamgaon and Nasik (Maharashtra) – Large mud houses with ovens and circular pit houses have been discovered here.
• Navdatoli (on Narmada) – It was one of the largest chalcolithic settlements in the country. It was spread over 10 hectares and cultivated almost all food grains.
• Nevasa (Jorwe, Maharashtra) and Eran (Madhya Pradesh) – These sites are known for their non-Harappan culture.

Question 36

early human (hominid) fossils in India?

Answer 36

1. not been found in India ecxept, a solitary find in Hathnaura in Narmada valley (aka Bori, MH)- 1.4 mnya -> Homoerectus; earliest homosapiens in upper Palaeolithic regions
2. though earliest (hominid or otherwise) fossil : Ramapithecus and Shivapithecus (10-14mya) in Shivalik and Salt range

Question 37

Early tools-.Palaeolithic tools: found where?

Answer 37

all over the country except alluvial plains of Indus Ganga and Yamuna

Question 38

Earliest palaeolithic tools?

Answer 38

as old as 100000 BC, in Chhotanagpur plateau

Question 39

palaeolithic age in India : intro?

Answer 39

1. India settled later than africa bt lithic tech broadly developed in the same manner
2. no knowledge of cultivatin and house-building
3. period: around 500,000BC to 9000BC; in pleistocene pd of ice age
4. Puranas speak of people living on roots and fruits
5. goats, sheeps and cattles exploited
6. sites are found in many hilly slopes and river valleys
7. absent in alluvial plains of INdus, Ganga and Yamuna
8. 3 phases:
   
   1. Lower: 500000BC to 50000BC
   2. Middle: 50000BC to 40000BC
   3. upper: 40000BC to 10000BC

Question 40

Lower Palaeolithic or Old stone age?

Answer 40

1. Ice age
2. charac: use of hand axes, ceavers and choppers
3. tools used fr chopping, digging and skinning
4. sites found in Sohan river valley (PJ); Kashmir; Didwana, Thar desert; Belan valley in Mirzapur; Narmad valley; caves and rock shelters of Bhimbetka (100000BC)

Question 41

Middle Palaeolithic?

Answer 41

1. mainly based on flakes: blades, points, borers and scrapers made of flakes
2. regions same as lower palaeolithic + south of Tungbhadra rivr
3. third Himalayan glaciation

Question 42

Upper Palaeolithic?

Answer 42

1. last phase of ice age: comparatively warmer climate
2. ended with end of ice age ~9000BC
3. in world: emergence of flint industries and homo sapiens
4. in India, use of blades and burins
5. in AndhraP, KN, MH, central MP, southern UP and BIhar
6. caves of Bhimbetka; upper levels of GJ dunes

Question 43

Mesolithic age?

Answer 43

1. HUnters and Herders
2. warm climate: change in flora and Fauna; move to new areas
3. continued hunting , fishing and food gathering frm palaeolithic age; and intiatation of domestication towards the end
4. charac tools: microliths
5. in RJ (Bagor), southern UP, central (Adamgarh, MP) and eastern India, south of river Krishna
   
   • adamgarh and Bagor earliest evidence for domestication of animals (5000BC)
   • cultivation of plants, 7K-6K BC, in RJ around Sambhar lake
6. nt dated properly; ~9K BC to 4K BC

Question 44

Art in pre-historic age?

Answer 44

• means Palaeolithic and mesolithic pd
• Bhimbetka: paintings frm both ages
• animal depicted larger in size-> shows fear
• birds, animals and human beings
• Perching birds absent
• upper Palaeo: Red and Green
• Mesolithic age: deep red, green, white and yellow; and man became the centre of the paintings; man shown in community in paintings

Question 45

Belan valley?

Answer 45

1. norhern spurs of Vindhyas
2. all 3 phases of Palaolithic followed by Mesollithic and then by Neolithic, found in sequence

Question 46

neolithic age?

Answer 46

1. Food producers
2. art of producing fire known
3. bows and arrows
4. pottery- first by hand and later by wheel; painted and decorated; red, grey, Black, B&R, Black Burnished ware and Mat-impressed ware
5. learnt art of spinning and weaving clothes
6. bury their dead and erected tombs over them called Dolmens and Menhirs
7. earliest:
   
   1. world: 9000BC
   2. Indian subcontient: only settlement attribute to 7K BC: Mehrgarh, Balochistan, pak
8. 4 charac:
   
   1. animal domestication
   2. agri
   3. grinded and polished stone tools: stone axes; Parshuram
   4. pottery mfg
9. based on type of axes used, 3 areas
   
   1. NW: rectangular axes with curved cutting edge
   2. NE: polished with rectangular butts and occasional shouldered hoes
   3. Southern: oval sides and pointed butts

Question 47

Neolithic age: NW?

Answer 47

1. earliest: Mehrgarh - 7000BC
2. rectangular axes with curved cutting edge
3. aka Kasmiri neolithic culture
4. charac: dwelling pits, range of ceramics
5. acquainted with agri
6. also Bones tools: only other place which hv them is Chirand (near Patna); possible coz 100cm rf and open land availability
7. complete absence of microliths
8. imp site: Burzahom (near Srinagar), Gufkral (near Srinagar)
9. Burzahom: coarse grey pottery; dogs buried with masters

Question 48

Neolithic age: South?

Answer 48

1. 2500BC
2. oval sides and pointed butts
3. south of Godavari
4. stone axes and stone blades
5. fire baked earthen figurines
6. large no. of cattle; plus sheeps and goats
7. acquainted with cereal prodn
8. imp sites:
   
   1. KN: Brahmgiri, Hallur, Kodekal, Sanganakallu, T. Narsipur, Piklihal and Takkalakota
   2. TN:Paiyampalli
   3. AndhraP: Utnur

Question 49

Neolithic age: NE?

Answer 49

1. 5000 BC
2. polished with rectangular butts and occasional shouldered hoes
3. hills of Assama and Garo hills ; north of Vindhyas in Mirzapur and Allahabad
4. Allahabad site: rice cultivation in 6000 BC

Question 50

paintings: topics?

Answer 50

1. principles
2. pre-historic
3. mural paintings
4. Miniature paintings
5. modern paintings
6. folk paintings

Question 51

Principles of Painting?

Answer 51

1. real beginning frm gupta age
2. 4th century - Vishakhadutta wrote MudraRakshasa - made mention of many paintings and mentioned 6 principles or shadangas of painting
   
   1. Rupabheda : variety of form
   2. Sadrisyan: likeliness of the object
   3. Bhava: luster and gleam with colors
   4. Varnikabhanga: mixing of colors to resemble modelling effects
   5. Pramanam: proportion of the object
   6. Lavanyayoganam: immersion of emotion

Question 52

styles of paintings mentioned in Mudrarakshasa?

Answer 52

1. Cauka pitaka: isolated framed drawings
2. Dighala pitaka: longscrolls of paintings
3. Yama pitaka: isolated paintings

Question 53

references to art of painting in Brahamanical and buddhist literature?

Answer 53

1. representation of myths and lores on textiles known as Lepya chitra
2. also reference to Lekhya chitra- line drawings and sketches
3. Dhuli chitra
4. Pata chitra etc.
5. The Buddhist text Vinayapitaka (4th–3rd century) describes the existence of painted figuresin many royal buildings

Question 54

Pre-historic paintings?

Answer 54

1. called Petroglyphs
2. first set in Bhimbetka (MP)
   
   1. bisons, bears and tigers, elephant, rhinos, cattle, snake, spotted deer, barasingha etc.
   2. called Zoo Rock shelter
3. Upper Palaeolithic:
   
   1. quartzite walls=> so, minerals for pigments
   2. ochre or geru + lime and water
   3. red, white, yellow and green
   4. white, dark red and green -> large animals
   5. red -> hunters and green -> dancers
4. Mesolithic period: mainly use of red color; size of paintings became samller; commonly depicted grp hunting; grazing activity and riding scenes

Question 55

Pre-historic paintings: chalcolithic?

Answer 55

1. increase in green and yellow color use
2. mostly battle scenes; men riding horses and elephants, carrying bow and arrow
3. cave paintings of Narsinghgarh (MH) showing skins of spotted deer left fr drying => art of tanning skins perfected
4. also musical instruments like harp
5. some hv complex geometrical shapes like spiral, rhomboid and circle
6. found at
   
   1. Jogamira caves in ramgarh hills in CHH- 100BC
   2. other caves in CHH like Udkuda, Garagodi, Khairkehda, gotitola etc. depicts higher sedentary levels of living
   3. Ghodsar and Kohabaur in Koriya district of Chhatisgarh
   4. Chitwa Dongri, Durg -> chinese figure riding a donkey, dragons and agri sceneries

Question 56

Mural paintings?

Answer 56

1. on walls or a solid str;mostly in natural caves or rock-cut chambers
2. can be dated to 2nd century BC to 10th century AD
3. imp sites:
   
   1. Ajanta
   2. Armamalai cave
   3. Ravan chhaya cave shelter
   4. bagh caves
   5. Sittanavassal (TN)
   6. kailasanatha temple in Ellora
4. theme: mostly Hindu, Buddhist or Jain
5. also to adorn any mundane premise: like ancient theatre room in Jogimara cave

Question 57

Mural paintings in India?

Answer 57

1. unique coz of their size; cannot be contained on paper
2. utilised by B, H and J religions
3. examples
   
   1. ajanta
   2. ellora
   3. Bagh cave
   4. aramalai
   5. Sittanavassal
   6. ravan chhaya rock shelter
   7. Lepakshi paintings

Question 58

Ajanta cave paintings: abt caves?

Answer 58

1. abt Ajanta ‘caves’
   
   1. carved out in 4th cent AD out of volcanic rocks
   2. 29 caves
   3. horse shoe shape
2. mural paintings in the caves

Question 59

Ajanta caves paintings: abt murals?

Answer 59

1. one of oldest surviving mural paintings
2. took ~4-5 centuries to complete under Mauryan empire
3. murals in cave no. 9 and 10 -> Sunga dynasty; rest-> gupta dynasty
4. murals in caves no 1 & 2-> most recent
5. hv both mural and fresco paintings (painted on wet plaster)
6. tempera style i.e. use of pigments using vegetable and mineral dyes
7. portray human values and social fabric alongwith styles and ornaments of that pd
8. emotions expressed thru hand gestures; graceful poses of humans and animals
9. unique feature: each female figure has a unique hairstyle
10. even animals and birds shown with emotions
11. common theme: Jataka stories, life of Buddha
12. outline of figures ochre, and contours of brown , black or deep red

Question 60

Ellora cave paintings?

Answer 60

1. in 5 caves only, mostly limited to Kailasha temple
2. done in 2 phases
   
   1. first during carving of caves; shows Vishnu and Lakshmi born through clouds by Garuda
   2. second, several centuries later; in Gujarati stylle; depict processions of Shaiva holy men
3. related to all 3 religions

Question 61

bagh cave paintings?

Answer 61

1. extension of Ajanta school, in terms of design and decoration
2. main difference, figures are more tightly modeled, hv stronger outline and are moe earthly and human

Question 62

Armamalai cave paintings?

Answer 62

1. vellore, TN
2. were made into Jain tempes in 8th cent AD
3. paintings on walls and roofs depict tales of Astathik palakas (deities of 8 corners) and Jainism

Question 63

Sittanavassal cave paintings?

Answer 63

1. near Puddukottai, TN
2. rock cut caves
3. paintings in Jain temple
4. close resemblance to bagh and Ajanta
5. on walls, ceilings and pillars
6. some believe them to be of Pallava period (king Mahendravarman I); others believe them to be of Pandya rulers’ time (9th cent AD)
7. use of veg and minerl dyes
8. putting colors on surface of thin wet lime plasters
9. common colors: yellow, green, orange, blue, black and white

Question 64

Ravan Chhya Rock shelter?

Answer 64

1. Keonjhar, Odisha
2. fresco painting
3. in a shape of half opened umbrella
4. acted as royal hunting lodge
5. most notable painting: royal procession that dates back to 7th cent AD
6. some remains of Chola period paintings (11th cent AD) also

Question 65

Lepakshi paintings?

Answer 65

1. Anatpur district, AP
2. on templewalls at Lepakshi
3. made during Vijaynagara period
4. NO religios theme, bt a secular one
5. complete absence of primary colors, esp Blue
6. view of the face frm 3/4 angle and gives a detached appearance
7. landscapes full of trees, rocks and other designs that do not try to replicate natural appearance of the subject
8. depict a dcline in qlty of painting
9. outline with black color
10. best eg of this pd- paintings at Virbhadra temple, Lepakshi

Question 66

Miniature paintings?

Answer 66

1. latin word: ‘minium’ meaning red lead paint; DOES NOT MEANS MINIMUM
2. used in illuminated manuscripts during renaissance
3. properties in indian miniature paintings:
   
   1. small paintings with minute details
   2. nt be larger than 25 sq inches
   3. subject of painting shud be painted in nt more than 1/6th of actual size
   4. mostly, human figurines seen with side profile
   5. bulging eyes, pointed nose, slim waist
   6. skin color may vary: in Rajasthani, its brown; in Mughal, fairer
   7. color of divine beings like Krishna is blue
   8. women figurines hv long hair; color of their hair & eyes is black
   9. men generally wear traditional clothes and a turban on head
4. sub-topics
   
   1. beginnings of miniature
   2. Pala school
   3. Apabhramsa school
   4. Transition period miniature
   5. during Delhi Sultanate
   6. Mughal Era miniature
   7. regional schools
   8. miniatures in South india

Question 67

beginnings of miniatures?

Answer 67

1. almost as a reaction to enormous wall paintings
2. betn 9th and 11th century
3. often painted fr either books or albums, on perishable materials incl paper, palm leaves and cloth

Question 68

Pala school of art?

Answer 68

1. 750-1150AD
2. as part of manuscripts
3. generally on palm leaf and vellum paper
4. mostly by Buddhist monks (incl Vajrayana) on banana and coconut leaves; promoted by kings who promoted Buddhism
5. charac:
   
   1. sinuous lines
   2. subdued tones of backgrnd imagery
   3. lonely single figures, rarely grps depicted
   4. simple compositions (i.e. manuscript)

Question 69

Apabhramsa school?

Answer 69

1. GJ and Mewar regionin RJ
2. 11th-15th century
3. Jain theme; though later period, Vaishnava too
4. In jain phase,
   
   1. made on palm leaf
   2. Jain iconography dominated
5. IN later Vaishnava pd,
   
   1. made on paper
   2. brought in concept of Gita Govinda and secular love
   3. used bright and gold color
6. even though made fr illustrations fr books, in essence were mural paintings in reduced dimensionsi.e. style nt much different frm mural
7. colors used,were red, yellow and ochre, had symbolic meaning
8. human features
   
   1. fish shaped bulging eyes
   2. pointed nose
   3. double chin
   4. angular faces in3rd and 4th profile
   5. usually stiff
   6. ornamentation done carefully
   7. female figurines- enlarged hips and breasts
   8. animal and bird figurines represented as toys
9. most famous: Kalpasutra and Kalakachya katha frm 15th cent

Question 70

Transition pd miniature?

Answer 70

1. coming of Muslims on Indian subcontinent- cultural renaissance in 14th cent
2. traditional styles also survived and a cultural synthesis occured
3. in southrn state of Vijaynagara, different style emerged resembling Deccan style of painting
   
   1. sensitive, highly integrated blend of indigenous and foreign art forms
   2. elongated figures (inspired frm Vijayanagar wall paintings)
   3. floral-sprigged backgrounds, high horizons, and general use of landscape (show Persian influence)
   4. Deccani colours are rich and luminous, and much use is made of gold and white.

Question 71

Miniature art during Delhi sultannate?

Answer 71

1. tried to bring together Persian original elements with Indian traditional element
2. preference to illustrated mauscripts
3. examples:
   
   1. Nimatnama, during the reign of Nasir SShah who ruled over Mandu (MP)
   2. Lodi Khuladar style- in many sultanate dominated regions betn delhi and Jaunpur

Question 72

Mughal era miniature paintings?

Answer 72

1. focus shifed frm depicting God to glorifying the ruler and his life
2. focus on hunting scenes, historical events and courts related
3. beautifully illustrated folios combining Persian naturalistic style with opulence of a great dynasty
4. use of brilliant colors
5. focus on accuracy of line drawings
6. diverse themes: except religious
7. brought technique of foresighting: looked closer and smaller than they were

Question 73

Mughal era miniature: early?

Answer 73

1. Babur patronized Persianartist Bihzad, who made illustrations of mughal family
2. HUmayun- great patron of art
   
   • when he was at Shah abba’s court in Persia, he acquired services of Abdus Sammad and Mir Saeed Ali, both came with him back to India and brought Persian influence with them

Question 74

Mughal era miniature: Akbar?

Answer 74

1. an entire deptt to paintings and scribing of his documents
2. established karkhanas or workshops
3. looked at paintings as means of study and amusement
4. invited many Indian artists (many of low castes) who worked in earlier Indian rulers’ courts-> Indian influence in Mughal paintings
5. defining feature:
   
   1. use of 3-D figures and continued use of foresighting
   2. encouraged use of calligraphy
   3. transformation of popular art to court art i.e. moer focussed on court life than the life of masses
   4. Indian scenery inspired rather than earlier Persian inspired
   5. illustrated Persian texts of Mahabharata, akbarnama etc
   6. Indian colors such as peacock blue, INdian red
6. Famous painters: Daswant, Basawan and Kesu

Question 75

Mughal era miniature: Jahangir?

Answer 75

1. reached zenith
2. naturalist by nature ; brought naturalism to portrait painting
3. preferred flora/fauna in paintings
4. unique trend: decorated margins
5. himselfa good artist, own pvt workshop
6. famous naturalistic paintings of Zebra, turkey and cock
7. famous artist: Ustaad Mansoor

Question 76

Mughal era miniature: Shahjahan?

Answer 76

1. tenor changed
2. unliike naturalistic, he preferred artificial elements
3. tried to reduce liveliness and brought unnatural stillness as he was inspired by European influence in his court
4. started use of charcoal; use of pencil
5. increased use of gold and silver
6. bright colors

Question 77

Mughal era miniature: regional schools?

Answer 77

1. rajasthani/ Rajput
   
   1. mewar
   2. Kishengarh
   3. Bundi
   4. Amber-jaipur
   5. MarwarBikaner
2. Pahari
3. kangra
4. basholi

Question 78

Mughal era miniature: regional schools: rajasthani/Rajput school?

Answer 78

1. combined themes and traditions of western India or Jain school with Mughal form and styles
2. flourished esp coz of exodus of artists during Aurangzeb’s rule
3. charac:
   
   1. hunting scenes
   2. court scenes
   3. mythology themes like Radha Krishna or ragas or Barahmasas

Question 79

regional schools: rajasthani/Rajput school: Mewar school?

Answer 79

1. patronised art even in times of adversity
2. early Mewar paintings dominated by Sahibdin’s depiction of literary texts- rasikpriya, Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana
3. after SAhibdin’s death, style changed; nw depicted courtlife
   
   1. unique feature of this pd- tamasha paintings that show court ceremonials and city views in very detail

Question 80

regional schools: rajasthani/Rajput school: Kishengarh?

Answer 80

1. early ones associated with romantic legends of Sawant SIngh and Bani Thani
   
   1. bani Thani resembled Radha
   2. distinctive profile, large and lustrous eyes
   3. thin lips, pointed chin
   4. side profile defined by Odhni
2. interwining of lives and myths, romance and bhakti incl Radha-Krishna
3. later pd dominated by Nihal Chand

Question 81

regional schools: rajasthani/Rajput school: Bundi schools?

Answer 81

1. Bundi + Kota =Hadoti
2. mainly Kota centre of art
3. rulers devout devotees of Krishna nd so Krishna Bhakti imp element
4. detailed paintings of local veg
5. round human faces with pointed nose
6. different colors in sky, though mostly a red ribbon is visible in th sky

Question 82

regional schools: rajasthani/Rajput school: Amber-Jaipur schools?

Answer 82

1. aka Dhundar school
2. close association with Mughals
3. much of collection in pvt hands and thus nt that much mass popularity
4. earliest: wall paintings at Bairat, palace walls and mausoleum of Amber palace
5. some men folk shown wearing mughal clothes and headgears
6. zenith during rule of SAwai Pratap Singh in 18th cent, a deeply religios man
   
   • depicted bhagwat purana, Ramayana etc.

Question 83

regional schools: rajasthani/Rajput school: Marwar school?

Answer 83

1. one of most extensive
2. includes Jodhpur, Bikaner (both ruled by Rathods) and Jaisalmer (ruled by Bhatis)
3. close links with Mughals => early works influenced by Mughal style
4. colorful clothing of both men and women
5. after 18th cent, Rajput elements became dominant
   
   1. high linear rhythm
   2. bright colors
   3. Most imp during man Singh’s reign: works of Shiv purana, natacharitra, panchtantra etc.

Question 84

regional schools: rajasthani/Rajput school: Bikaner school?

Answer 84

1. earliest to link with Mughals
2. early paintings made by patshahi Chitrakars, erstwhile Mughal court artists, an dtheir work similar to Mughal art

Question 85

regional schools: pahari style?

Answer 85

1. sub-Himalayan states
2. under umbrella of mughal rule
3. basically a collective term fr many court arts in states stretching frm Jammu to Almora. therfore two sub-types
   
   1. jammu or DOgra school: northern series
   2. Kangra school: Southern series
4. themes:mythology to literature
5. typical techniques:
   
   1. several figurs into the canvas
   2. all engaged in movement
   3. each figure different in composition, color and pigmentation
6. Greats: Nainsukh and Manaku

Question 86

regional schools: kangra school?

Answer 86

1. patronage by Raja Goverdhan
2. first evolved in Guler then came to Kanra ths called Guler-Kangra school
3. zenith under Raja Sansar Chand
4. sensuality and intelligence
5. topics: Gita Govind, Bhagwat Purana, Nal Damayanti
6. other worldly feel
7. a famous grp of paintings: ‘twelvw months’ showin effects of months on human emotions

Question 87

regional schools: Bisholi school?

Answer 87

1. early phase of Pahari school (17th cent)
2. expressive faces with receding hairlines and big eyes that are shaped like lotus petals
3. use a lot of primary colors RYB
4. used Mghal technique of painting on cloth bt with their own styles nd techniques
5. first patronage by raja Kirpal singh
6. most famous painter: DEvi Das- Radha Krishna depictions and portraits of kings in whites
7. used contrast of colors, like in Malwa paintings

Question 88

Ragmala paintings?

Answer 88

1. series of paintings frm medieval era depicting various Indian musical ragas
2. created in most schools of INdia painting starting in 16th and 17th centuries
3. eg. Pahari, Rajasthani, Deccan ramals etc.
4. each raga is personified by a color describing the story of a hero and heroine in a particular mood,
5. also tells abt season and time of the day in which a particular raga is to be sung
6. some also demarcate specific Hindu deities attached with the raga like Bhairava to Shiva
7. main ragas present are: Bhairava, dipika, Sri, Malkaunsa, Megha and Hindola

Question 89

Miniatures in S . india?

Answer 89

1. already present bt developed in medieval times
2. diff frm N. India: heavy use f gold
3. concentrated on painting divine cretures rather than rulers who patronized them.
4. mahor schools are: Tanjore and Mysore schools.

Question 90

Tanjore Paintings?

Answer 90

1. famous fr decorative styles
2. patronized by Marathas in 18th cent; zenith under Sarfoji maharaj
3. uniqueiness:
   
   1. they are created in glass and board instead of clothuse of brilliant colors
   2. liberal use of gold leaf
   3. use of many types of gemstones and cut glasses to cretae larger than life images
   4. mostly of smiling Krishna in various poses and major life events

Question 91

Mysore paintings?

Answer 91

1. patronised by Mysore rulers and continued in British era too
2. major themes: hindu gods and goddesses
3. unique:
   
   1. 2 or more figures in each painting
   2. one fiure dominates all other in terms of size and colortechnique also diff- use of ‘gesso paste’ (ZnO + Arabic gum) that gives sheen to backgrnd
   3. use of muted colors

Question 92

Modern paintings?

Answer 92

1. Company paintings
2. Bazaar paintings
3. raja Ravi Verma
4. Bengal school

Question 93

Company paintings?

Answer 93

1. hybrid style: Indian + european elements
2. evolved when Company officers employed painters trained in Indian style
3. uniquesness:
   
   1. use of water colors
   2. appearance of linear perspective and shading
   3. theme: exotic flora and fauna of India
4. main centres: Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Patna, Varanasi and Thanjavur
5. most famous: Sewak Ram, Ishwari Prasad and Ghulam ali Khan

Question 94

Bazaar paintings?

Answer 94

1. also influenced by europeans; diff bein jere, no influence of Indian styles at all bt Roman and Grecian styles and copy their statues
2. in bengal and Bihar region
3. themes also included everyday Bazaar showing Indian Bazaars with european backgrnd; religious themes bt nt like Ganesha that was completely opp Roman style

Question 95

raja Ravi Verma?

Answer 95

1. considered originator of modern school of painting with heavy influence of western styles and themes combined wih South Indian style
2. ‘Rapahael of East’
3. famous works: ‘lady in the Monnlight’, ‘Mother INdia’ , ‘Ravana kidnapping Sita’

Question 96

bengal school of art?

Answer 96

1. use of simple colors
2. Abhanindranath Tagore: Arabian night series
3. Rabindranth Tagore: use of dominant black lines; made small size paintings; similar to his writings

Question 97

folk paintings iN india?

Answer 97

1. Madhubani
2. Pattachitra
3. Patua art
4. kalighat painting
5. Paitkar painting
6. Kalamkari painting
7. Worli painting
8. Thangka painting
9. manjusha painting

Question 98

madhubani paintins?

Answer 98

1. aka maithila paintings; traditionally done by women
2. originated probab durin ramayana times
3. religious theme
4. symbolic eg. Fish depicts good luck and fertility
5. depicts auspicious occasions like birth, marriage
6. flowers, trees, animals use to fill gaps in paintings
7. traditionally on walls using rice paste an dveg colors on a base of cow dung and mud; later base changed to handmade paper, clothes and canvas bt colors remianed natural
8. NO shading=> 2-D pics
9. double line border, bold use of colors, ornate floral patterns and exagerated facial features
10. GI status

Question 99

pattachitra?

Answer 99

1. Odisha
2. classical + folk elements
3. base: cloth; colors frm natural soures;
4. NO pencil or charcoal rather brush is used to draw outline in red or yellow and then colors are filled
5. Floral backgrnd
6. coating of lacquer after its completed to give it a glossy finish
7. themes: Jagannath and Vaishnava/Shakti/Shaiva cult
8. Pattachitra on palm leafs are called talpattachitra

Question 100

Patwa art?

Answer 100

1. Bengal
2. started as tradition of telling mangal kavyas using pics
3. done on pats or scrolls
4. initially on clothes and told religious stories; nw on paper and comment on political and social issues
5. These patuas (painters) come frm Midnapore district

Question 101

Kalighat painting?

Answer 101

1. done by rural migrants who settled around Kalighat temple in 19th cent Calcutta
2. water colors used on mill paper using brushers made of calf and squirrel hair
3. plaque like effect on neutral backgrnd due to shaded colors and articulated movement
4. originally depicted religious themes; later social sentiments (first to do so)

Question 102

Paitkar paintings?

Answer 102

1. tribal people of JHscroll paintings
2. associations with Ma Mansa, one of most imp Bengali goddesses
3. linked to social and reliious customs incl giving alms and social yajnas
4. Common theme: ‘what happens to humans post death’
5. on verge of extinction

Question 103

kalamkari paintins

Answer 103

1. pen, made up of sharp pointed bamboo, is used
2. base is cotton fabric; colors ve dyes
3. main centre: Srikalahasti and Machilipatnam, AndhraP
4. imaes are drawn free hand
5. theme: Hindu mythology; also seen is use of flfowers and animals

Question 104

Manjusha painting?

Answer 104

1. Bhagalpur region
2. aka angika art (Ang mahajanpada)
3. snake motifs are always present=> aka snake paintings
4. base: boxes of jute and paper

Question 105

Thangka paintings?

Answer 105

1. Sikkim
2. originally Buddhist; bt ne commercialised
3. base: cotton canvas (white backgrnd) with paints made frm natural veg dyes or mineral dyes
4. symbolism of colors eg Red-> intesity of passion; golden -> life or birth
5. framed in silk brocade
6. 3 types acc to depiction and meaning
   
   1. shows life of Buddha
   2. more abstract; represents Buddhist beliefs of life and death incl ‘Wheel of life’
   3. used fr offerings to deities and meditation

Question 106

Warli paintings?

Answer 106

1. goes back to 2500-3000BC
2. Warlis, indigenous to GJ-MH border
3. close resemblance to Bhimbetka nural paintings of pre-historic period
4. ritualistic in nature
5. central motif of a chaukat or chauk surrounded by scenes of fishing, hunting, farming etc.
6. Palaghat (Goddess of fertility) is depicted and male gods in human forms
7. done on walls using very graphic vocab like triangle, circle etc that represent natural obj mimicking thei shape fr eg Sun is circle; bt nw also done on cloth
8. base made up of mud, branches and cow dung hat gives it a red ochre color
9. Fr painting, only white pigment is used using mix of gum and rice powderususally done on auspicious occasions

Question 107

shramana tradition?

Answer 107

• On-Vedic movements
• Jainism, Buddhism, Yoga
• concepts like samsara, suffering, moksha
• denounced rituals

Question 108

Mauryan art?

Answer 108

two sub-types

1. Court initiated:
   
   1. Palaces
   2. Pillars
   3. Stupas
2. Popular art
   
   1. Caves
   2. pottery
   3. sculptures

Question 109

Mauryan art: palaces?

Answer 109

1. at capital patliputra and Kumrahar
2. palace of CM inspired by Achaemeniad palaces at Persepolis n Iran
3. Wood principle building material
4. described by Megasthenes as one of the greatest creations of mankind

Question 110

Mauryan art: pillars?

Answer 110

1. made of chunar sandstone
2. 4parts:
   
   1. shaft: monolith
   2. capital on top of it: lotus or inverted bell shaped
      
      • bell shape influenced by Iranian pillars as was the highly polished finish
   3. a rectangular or circular base called abacus
   4. an animal figure on top of it
3. examples: Lauria Nandangarh pillar in Champaran; Sarnath pillar in Varanasi

Question 111

Sarnath pillar?

Answer 111

• abacus and animal: natinal emblem
• in abacus, 4 animals:
  
  • gallping horse
  • bull
  • elephant
  • lion
• built in commemoration of first sermon

Question 112

Mauryan art: stupas?

Answer 112

1. were burial mounds prevalent frm vedic pd; relics and ashes of dead kept
2. reached climax in asoka’s time: ~ 84000 erected
3. popularised by Buddhists though a Vedic innovation eg, 9 stupas afetr death of Buddha
4. str:
   
   1. core madeof unburnt brick while outer made of burnt brick which were then covered by thick layer of plaster
   2. earlier ones weren’t completely solid and had a relic chamber called tabena
   3. on top: Harmika-> Yasti -> Chatra
      
      • Chhatra represent the three Jewels, or Triantha- Buddha, dharma and sangha
   4. an ambulatory pathway called medhi
   5. toranas
5. Sanchi stupa, MP; Piprahwa stupa, UP oldest

Question 113

locations of 9 stupas built after death of Buddha?

Answer 113

Rajgriha

vaishali

Kapilavastu

allakappa

Ramgrama

vethapida

Pava

Kushinagar

Pippalivana

Question 114

Mauryan art: caves?

Answer 114

1. emergence of rock-cut
2. used as viharas in Mauryan times i.e. living qrtrs by Jain and Buddhist monks
3. marked by highly polished finish of interior and decorative gateways
4. eg. Barabar and nagarjuni caves in Bihar during Dashrath’s times (Ashoka’s son)

Question 115

Mauryan art: sculptures?

Answer 115

1. primarily fr decoration of stupas in torana and medhi
2. Yaksha and yakshini: related to all 3 religions
   
   • earliest mention in Silappadikaram
   • all jain tirthankaras associated with yakshinis

Question 116

Mauryan art: pottery?

Answer 116

NBPW

black paint and highly lustrous finish

used as luxury items

referred as highest level of pottery

Question 117

Post mauryan art?

Answer 117

1. rock cut caves: continued
   
   1. dev of 2 types: chaitya and vihara
      
      • chaityas quadrangular chambers with flat roofs and used as prayer halls
   2. had open courtyards and stone screen to shield frm rain
   3. decorated with human and animal figurines
   4. eg.Karle Chaitya hall, Ajanta caves (25 viharas+ 4 chaityas)
2. Stupas: became larger and more decorative
   
   1. stone instead of wood and brick
   2. Shungas introduced ieda of torans as beautifully decorated gateways-> evidence of Hellenistic influence
   3. eg. bharhut stupa in MP, toran at Sanchi stupa

Question 118

Post Mauryan art: Sculptures?

Answer 118

three schools developed

1. gandhara school
2. mathura school
3. Amaravati school

Question 119

Gandhara school?

Answer 119

1. western frontiers of PJ near Peshawar and Afghanistan
2. influenced by greek and roman; thus aka graeco-Roman
3. in 2 stages betn 50BC - 500 AD:
   
   1. First stage known fr use of bluish grey sandstone
   2. Second stage knownfr use of mud and stucco
4. images resembled Apollo
5. mainly Buddhist imagery
6. patronised by Kushanas
7. features of Buddha:
   
   1. Buddha in a spiritual state
   2. wavy hair
   3. fewer ornaments
   4. yogi position
   5. half-closed eyes
   6. protuberance on head showing omniscience
   7. halo around head

Question 120

Mathura school?

Answer 120

1. developed indigenously; nt influenced by external styles
2. betn 1st and 3rd centuries BC
3. made using spotted red sandstone
4. all 3 religions; images modelled on Yaksha images of Mauryan times
5. striking use of symbolism eg. Hindu Gods shown using avayudhas like Lingas fr Shiva
6. patronised by Kushanas
7. developed along Yamunabanks in Mathura, Sonkh and kankalitila (famous fr Jain sculp)
8. fetures:
   
   1. Buddha in delighted mood with smiling face
   2. muscular body
   3. tight dress
   4. shaven face and head
   5. padmasana with different mudras
   6. grace on face
   7. protuberance on head
   8. halo around head is larger than in Gandhara school and decorated with geometrical patterns
   9. shown surrounded by two Bodhisattvas- padmapani holding Lotus and Vajrapani holding thuderbolt

Question 121

Amaravati school?

Answer 121

1. indigenously developed; no ext influence
2. made using white marbles
3. mainly Buddhist
4. patrnisedby satvahana rulers
5. developed in krishna-Godavari lower valley in and around Amaravati and nagarjunakonda
6. features:
   
   1. sculptures part of narrative art
   2. less emphasis on individual features of Buddha
   3. depict life stories of Buddha and Jataka talesi.e. previous lives in bboth animal and human form
   4. made excessive use of tribhanga posture

Question 122

Gupta age: architecture and sculpture?

Answer 122

1. caves:
   
   1. dev remained constant
   2. use of murla paintings on walls added feature
   3. Ajanta and Ellora
2. Stupas:
   
   1. decline
   2. Dhamekh stupa at Sarnath stands out: first sermon
3. Sculpture: new school dev around Sarnath
   
   1. halo around Buddha’s head intricately decorated
   2. sculptues immaculately dressed and NO nakedness at all
   3. use of colored sandstone and use of metal
4. Temples: dev of square sanctum amd pillared portico emerged; gradual progression frm flat roofed, monolithic temple to initial stages of sculptured shikharas stage

Question 123

Caves?

Answer 123

1. Ajanta caves
2. Ellora caves
3. Bagh caves
4. Junagadh caves
5. Nasik caves
6. Mandapeshwar caves

Question 124

Ajanta caves?

Answer 124

1. rock cut caves in the Sahyadri ranges (WG) at Auranagabad
2. on Waghora river
3. total 29 (25 Viharas + 4 chaityas)
4. dev during 200BC to 650AD
5. inscribed by Buddhist monks under patronage of Vakataka king- Harishena
6. paintings
   
   1. fresco
   2. considerable naturalism
   3. colors obtained frm local veg and minerals
   4. outlines in red and then inside painted
   5. absence of blue color
   6. themed around Buddhism- life of Buddha and Jataka stories
7. 5 developed durng Hinayana phase remianing during Mahayana
8. refernce of Ajanta caves can be found in Fa-Hien and Huen Tsang’s accts
9. caves were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983.

Question 125

Ellora caves?

Answer 125

1. located nearly 100 Kms away from Ajanta caves in the Sahyadri range in auranagabd
2. over 100 caves at the site bt group of 34 caves open to public – 17 Brahmanical, 12 Buddhist and 5 Jain (Digamabara sect).
3. developed during the period between the 5th and 11th centuries A.D. (newer as compared to Ajanta Caves) ; all built during reign of Hindu dynasties like Rashtrakutas and Yadavas
4. dev by various guilds from Vidarbha, KN and TN.That is why the caves reflect a natural diversity in terms of theme and architectural styles.
5. diff with Ajanta caves: Ajanta caves are on the stiff side, ellora is on the slope side of the mts leading to presence of courtyards in ellora (vene triple storied caves in ellora), that are absent in Ajanta
6. prominent caves in ellora:
   
   1. # 10: chaitya cave dedicated to Vishwakarma: ‘carpenter’s cave’
   2. # 14: raavan ki Khai
   3. # 15: dashavatar cave
   4. # 16: Kailash temple;
      • largest;
      • dev under rashtrakuta king Krishna I
      • carved out of a monolith and even has a courtyard;
      • chariot shaped;
      • also features sculptures depicting the gods, goddesses and mythologies found in Vaishnavism, Shaktism as well as relief panels summarizing the two major Hindu Epics
      • traces of Pallava and Chalukya styles
      • notable for its vertical excavation—carvers started at the top of the original rock and excavated downward
   5. Indra Sabha and Jagannath sabha: Jain caves
7. designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983.
8. most remarkable of the cave temples is Kailasa (Kailasanatha; cave 16)

Question 126

Bagh caves?

Answer 126

n banks of Bagh rive in MP

9 Buddhist caves dev around 6th cent AD

archi very similar to Ajanta caves

Question 127

Junagadh caves?

Answer 127

GJ

unique feature: 30-50 ft high citadel known as ‘Upar Kot’ in frnt of prayer hall

Question 128

Nasik caves?

Answer 128

23 buddhist (HInayana) caves aka Pandav leni

during 1st cent AD

no images of Buddha: instead use of motifs like throne and footprints

Question 129

mandapeshwar caves?

Answer 129

aka Montperir caves

8th cent AD

originally as Brahmanical cave; later converted into Christian cave

Question 130

Rock cut architecture: intro?

Answer 130

Rock-cut architecture is the creation of structures, buildings, and sculptures by excavating solid rock where it naturally occurs. The three main uses of rock-cut architecture were temples tombs, and cave dwellings. The Oldest rock-cut architecture is the Barabar caves, Bihar built around 3rd Century BC.

Rock-cut architecture was suited India since the country had plenty of rocky Mountains, and structures excavated in stone were the ones which were most durable.

Question 131

Rock cut architecture: Evolution?

Answer 131

• The earliest rock-cut caves are attributed to Ashoka and his grandson Dasaratha.
• The early Buddhist architecture covers the period from the 2^nd century BC to the 2^nd century AD. The excavations belonging to this period mostly consists of- the chaitya, viharas. They were mostly constructed of wood. Examples of the early Buddhist architecture can still be seen at Karla, Kanheri, Nasik, Bhaja and Bedsa and at Ajanta.
• The second phase of rock-cut architecture began in the 5^th century AD. This phase was characterized by the elimination of timber and by the introduction of the image of the Buddha as a dominant feature of the architectural design. Viharas underwent a slight change during this time, the inner cells inhabited by the monks alone, now housed the image of the Buddha as well.
• The next and perhaps the most dominant phase in the tradition in the rock-cut tradition happen to be Dravidian rock-cut style. The primary features of this style are mandapa and ratha. The mandapa is an open pavilion excavated out of a rock. It takes the form of a simple columned hall with two or more cells in the back wall. The ratha is a monolithic shrine carved out a single rock.

Question 132

Rock cut architecture: importnat rock cut caves (some covered by f/c # 124 to 129)

Answer 132

https://1drv.ms/u/s!AvN_8sA-Zf0djlwws9ZaUBmPy-2U?e=Re4WnA

Question 133

Rock cut architecture: Kanheri caves?

Answer 133

• They are located near Mumbai
• They cover the period from 2^nd to 9^th century AD
• They belong to the Hinayana phase of Buddhist architecture
• However, additions were made when Mahayana Buddhism was gaining ground. Ex: 5^th century image of Buddha
• It has around 100 caves.

Question 134

Rock cut architecture: Jogeshwari caves?

Answer 134

• These caves are located within the island of Salsette
• They belong to the last stages of Mahayana Buddhism
• Brahmanical shrines are also found here

They belong to the second half of the 8^th century

Question 135

Rock cut architecture: Karle caves?

Answer 135

• Karla caves are located on Banaghta hills near Mumbai
• It belongs to the Hinayana period of the Buddhist architecture
• The chaitya here is among the largest and the best preserved in the country
• Many traders and Satavahana rulers made grants for construction of these caves.
• The main cave, called the Great Chaitya cave, or Cave No.8, features a large, intricately carved chaitya, or prayer hall, dating back to 120 CE.

Question 136

Rock cut architecture: Elephanta caves?

Answer 136

• It is located in Mumbai
• They belong to 8^th century AD
• The Ganesh Gumpha is one of the earliest examples of the Brahmanical temple and has been excavated in a rock terrace, the outside consisting of a columned verandah and approached by steps flanked by sculpted elephants
• One of the master-piece of this cave is the three faced-image of Shiva
• Other important sculptures here are- Ravana shaking Kailasa, marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Shiva performing the Tandava dance, Ardhanariswara

Question 137

Rock cut architecture: Bhaja caves?

Answer 137

• It is located near Pune
• They are believed to be excavated in 2^nd century BC
• It belongs to the Hinayana Buddhism sect in Maharashtra
• These caves are notable for their indications of the awareness of wooden architecture
• The carvings prove that tabla – a percussion instrument – was used in India for at least 2300 years

Question 138

Rock cut architecture: Bedsa caves?

Answer 138

• It is located near Pune
• The Chaitya resembles the great hall at Karle but is smaller.
• It has four pillars with carvings of horses, bulls and elephants mounted by make and female riders

Question 139

Rock cut architecture: Udaygiri caves of MP?

Answer 139

• These caves are located near Vidisha, MP. One Udayagiri caves also in Odisha
• They contain some of the oldest surviving Hindu temples and iconography in India
• They are the only site that can be verifiably associated with a Gupta period monarch from its inscriptions.
• Udayagiri caves contain iconography of Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaktism (Durga and Matrikas) and Shaivism (Shiva)
• They are notable for the ancient monumental relief sculpture of Vishnu in his incarnation as the man-boar Varaha, rescuing the earth symbolically represented by Bhudevi clinging to the boar’s tusk as described in Hindu mythology
• The site has important inscriptions of the Gupta dynasty belonging to the reigns of Chandragupta II (c. 375-415) and Kumaragupta I
• The Udayagiri Caves complex consists of twenty caves, of which one is dedicated to Jainism and all others to Hinduism

Question 140

Rock cut architecture: Udaygiri and Khandagiri caves?

Answer 140

in Odisha

• They were made under the Kalinga King Kharavela in 1^st-2^nd century BC near modern-day Bhubaneswar.
• The cave complex has both man-made and natural caves possibly carved out for residence of Jain monks.
• There are 18 caves in Udayagiri and 15 in Khandagiri.
• Udayagiri caves are famous for the Hathigumpha inscription which is carved out in Brahmi script.

Question 141

Rock cut architecture: Badami cave temples?

Answer 141

Badami (Karnataka) was the capital of Chalukyas.

• It has four cave temples based on Hinduism (3) and Jainism (1).
• This is a rock-cut architecture which dates back to the 6th century AD.
• They are the earliest known temples in the Deccan region.
  • Cave 1: An important sculpture carved inside the cave temple is of Lord Shiva as Nataraja. There also lies a relief of Harihara (half Vishnu and half Shiva).
  • Cave 2: Dedicated primarily to Vishnu, the largest relief is of Lord Vishnu as Trivikrama. Other forms such as Vamana avatar (dwarf avatar) and Varaha (Boar) avatar can also be found.
  • Cave 3: It is the largest cave in the comlex and has intricately carved reliefs of Trivikrama, Anantasayana, Vasudeva, Varaha, Harihara and Narasimha.
  • Cave 4: It is a Jain cave with intricate structures of Bahubali, Parshvanatha and Mahavira with a symbolic display of the other Tirthankaras.

Question 142

Rock cut architecture: Mahabalipuram set of monuments: intro?

Answer 142

Perhaps no other empire has garnered appreciation for their contribution to rock-cut architecture as Pallavas. Some of the monuments created by Pallavas during their rule through rock excavation have garnered the worldwide admiration for its beauty and the skills displayed by the artists

The Pallavas were a powerful ancient dynasty that ruled a huge part of Southern India, including present day Tamil Nadu, between the 6th and 9th centuries AD, with Kanchipuram as their capital. They are credited with introducing the Dravidian style of temple architecture.

The first Pallava shrines were rock-cut cave temples. Gradually, these evolved to monolithic shrines carved out of huge rocks, and finally culminated in “structural temples” built from scratch.

• Temple architecture in South India began under the Pallava ruler Mahendravarman.
• The temples developed during the Pallava dynasty reflected the stylistic taste of the individual rulers and can be classified into four stages chronologically.
  • Mahendra group: This was the first stage of Pallava temple architecture.
    • The temples built under Mahendravarman were basically rock-cut temples.
    • Under him, the temples were known as mandapas, unlike the Nagara style in which the mandapas meant only the assembly hall.
  • Narasimha group: Second stage of the development of temple architecture in South India.
    • The rock-cut temples were decorated by intricate sculptures.
    • The mandapas were now divided into separate rathas.
    • The biggest one was called the Dharmaraja ratha while the smallest one was called the Draupadi ratha.
  • Rajsimha group and Nandivarman group: Third and fourth stage of temple development.
    • Development of real structural temples was started which replaced the rock-cut temples.

Their contribution in realm of rock-cut architecture could be seen in Mahabalipuram. Some of these are highlighted below:

• There are multiple rock cut shrines, they consist of cave-like verandahs or mandapas with rows of pillars.
• Most of the pillars are embellished with carved lions at their bases, a signature feature found in almost all of Pallava architecture.
• Detailed panels depict episodes from Hindu mythology, and niches inside the caves often house sculpted deities. The Varaha Mandapa in Mahabalipuram has stunning carvings that tell stories of Varaha, the avatar of Lord Vishnu in the form of a boar.
• The Mahishamardini Mandapa is dedicated to Mahishamardini, a form of Goddess Durga, and the Trimurti Mandapa to the trinity of Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva.
• The Krishna Mandapa is known for a magnificent panel called Govardhanadhari, portraying Lord Krishna holding up the mythical Govardhana hill to protect the people of his village from torrential rains.

Question 143

Rock cut architecture: Mahabalipuram set of monuments: categories?

Answer 143

The site has about forty monuments, in varying degrees of completion, categorized into five groups:

• Rathas: chariot-shaped temples
• Mandapas: Cave temples
• Rock reliefs
• Structural temples
• Excavations

Question 144

Rock cut architecture: Mahabalipuram set of monuments: Ratha temples?

Answer 144

• The ratha temples, in southern Mahabalipuram, are carved in the shape of chariots.
• carved out of blocks of granite in sand
• The best-known are the five monolithic structures projecting above the beach, known as the Five Rathas or the Pandava Rathas. Although the symbolism and grouping of the temples have led to these popular names, they are neither true rathas nor dedicated to the Pandavas; they are temples dedicated to deities and concepts of the Shaivi, (Shiva), Vaishnavi (Vishnu) and Shakti (Durga) traditions of Hinduism
• Common elements:
  
  • moulded plinths
  • above this plinth the “walls divide rhythmically into a number of projections and niches
  • Sculptures are within the niches
  • The upper level repeated (at a reduced level) the lower-level design or was capped with curved roofs
• Dharmaraja Ratha:
  
  • The temple’s pyramidal tower consists of a vimana of shrinking squares, capped by an octagonal shikhara.
  • Its pillars have seated lions at the base
  • The ratha walls have carvings and inscriptions, one mentioning Narasimhavarman I
  • carvings of aspects of Shiva and Vishnu, suggesting that the artists revered both Hindu traditions
• Bhima ratha:
  
  • most massive of the five rathas
  • Unlike the other rathas, the temple has no inscriptions or sculptures.
• Arjuna Ratha
  
  • incomplete
• Draupadi Rathas
  
  • shares the platform with Arjuna ratha
  • it resembles a wooden hut and has a curved roof. There is a carved structure with alternating lions and elephants, and the shrine deity is missing
  • Its design is a simplified Nagara-style Hindu temple
• Nakula-Sahdeva ratha
  
  • Vesara style temple
  • Northeast of the ratha are a standing elephant and Arjuna Ratha
• Other rathas: Gaesha ratha

Question 145

Rock cut architecture: Mahabalipuram set of monuments: Cave temples?

Answer 145

called Mandapams. The Mamallapuram cave temples are incomplete, which has made them a significant source of information about how cave monuments were excavated and built in 7th-century India

• Varaha cave
  
  • a Vaishnavism-related cave temple, it is known for its four sculptures depicting Hindu legends: the Vamana-Trivikrama legend, the Varaha legend, the Durga legend and the Gajalakshmi legend
• kotikal cave temple
• Dharmraja cave temple
• Ramanuja cave temple
• Krishna mandapa
  
  • is a sophisticated cave, with large panels depicting Hindu mythology and the culture of 7th-century TN
  • The temple is near the Descent of the Ganges bas-relief.
  • The walls of the pillared hall depict village life woven into the story of Krishna. Krishna holds Goverdhana Mountain, under which are people, cattle and other animals, in one section

Question 146

Rock cut architecture: Mahabalipuram set of monuments: ‘Descent of Ganges’ rock relief?

Answer 146

Rock reliefs are carved on rocks or boulders. These include the wall of the Krishna mandapa, where a superstructure was added in front of the relief.

The best-known rock relief in Mahablipuram is the Descent of the Ganges (also known as Arjuna’s Penance or Bhagiratha’s Penance), the largest open-air rock relief.

Question 147

Mahabalipuram set of monuments: structural temples?

Answer 147

The structural (free-standing) temples at Mamallapuram have been built with cut stones as building blocks, rather than carved into a rock (cave temples) or out of a rock (ratha temples). Surviving examples, fewer in number and representing a different stage, style and sophistication than the other monuments, are some of best examples of early medieval Tamil Hindu-temple architecture

1. Shore temple
2. Olakkanesvara temple
3. Mukundanayanar temple

Question 148

Five stages of temple architecture: first stage?

Answer 148

1. flat roof
2. square in shape
3. portico developed on shallowpillars
4. entire str built on low platforms
5. eg. Temple #17 at sanchi

Question 149

Five stages of temple architecture: 2nd stage?

Answer 149

1. most of the features same as 1st stage
2. higher platforms
3. some instances of 2-storied also
4. covered ambulatory passageway arnd Garbhagriha
5. eg. Parvati temple at nachna Kuthara in MP

Question 150

Five stages of temple architecture: 3rd stage?

Answer 150

1. emergence of shikharas in place of flat roof
2. still quite low and almost square
3. Panchayatan style introduced in a crucified shape
4. eg. dashavatar temple at deogarh (UP), Durga temple at Aihole (KN)

Question 151

Five stages of temple architecture: 4th stage?

Answer 151

1. similar to as in 3rd stage except main shrine became mor rectangular
2. eg. ter temple at Sholapur

Question 152

Five stages of temple architecture: 5th stage?

Answer 152

1. rest same as in 4th stage except intro of circular temple with shallow rectangular projections
2. eg. maniyar Math at Rajgir

Question 153

Diff types of temple archi?

Answer 153

• North India

1. nagara
   
   1. Odisha
   2. Khajuraho
   3. Solanki

• South India

1. Dravidian
2. Nayaka
3. Vesara
4. Hoysala
5. Vijaynagara
6. pala

Question 154

common features of HIndu temples?

Answer 154

1. Sanctum Santorum aka garbhagriha
2. Mandapa: entrance; may be a portico or a hall
3. Shikhara
4. Vahana: mount or vehicle of the main deity placed jst before sanctum sanctorum

Question 155

nagara school?

Answer 155

“from 5th century CE, a distinct style of temple architecture developed in NOrth INdia, known as Nagara style”

1. Panchayatan style: “subsidiary shrine laid out in a crucified ground plan”
2. river goddesses outside garbhagriha
3. no water tanks
4. temples built on upraised platforms
5. porticos had pillared approach
6. shikhara: “mountain like spire”; three types: Latina or Rekha-prasad, Phamasana and valabhi
7. amalak and kalash: “vertical end of shikhara ended in a horizontal fluted disk”
8. rathas: “vertical planes were used as different panels to make narrative sculptures”
9. covered ambulatory passages
10. generally did not have elaborate boundary walls or gateways

Question 156

Odisha school?

Answer 156

in different parts of Kalinga empire

1. The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classified in three orders, i.e., rekhapida, pidhadeul and khakra
2. exterior walls decorated while interior walls plain
3. no use of pillars, instead iron girders
4. shikharas called rekhadeuls; almost vertical which suddenly curved inwards
5. mandapas called jagmohans
6. square ground plan
7. temples surrounded by boundary walls like in dravidian style
8. eg. Sun temple at Konark (aka Black pagoda), Jagannath temple at Puri, Lingraj temple at Bhubaneshwar

Question 157

Khajuraho school?

Answer 157

In central India by Chandel rulers, aka Chandel school

1. both interior and exterior decorated with carvings
2. erotic sculptures inspired by Vatsyayan’s kamasutra
3. made of sandstone
4. had three chambers: garbhagriha, mandapa and ardhmandapa
5. some had vestibular entrance to garbhagriha called antarala
6. temples N or E facing
7. Panchayatan style; even subsidiary styles had shikharas; mountain range look
8. built on high platforms
9. eg. Kandariya mahadev temple and KLakshman temple at Khajuraho

Question 158

Solanki school?

Answer 158

in NW india, under Solanki rulers

1. walls were devoid of any carvings
2. garbhagriha conneced with madpa both internally and externally
3. porticos have decorated arched gateways known as torans
4. unique feature: step tanks (called surya kund); steps are full of small temples with each having wooden carvings of their own
5. materials used: sandstone, black basalt and soft marble
6. most temples are east facinf such that during equinoxes, sun rays fall directly into central shrine
7. eg. Modhera sun temple, GJ

Question 159

Dashavtar temple at Deogarh?

Answer 159

1. built in the early sixth century CE, built in the early sixth century CE
2. This temple is in the panchayatana style of architecture where the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners (making it a total number of five shrines, hence the name, panchayatana).
3. The tall and curvilinear shikhara also corroborates this date. The presence of this curving latina or rekha-prasada type of shikhara makes it an early example of a classic nagara style of temple
4. temple has a grand doorway with standing sculptures of female figures representing the Ganga on the left side and the Yamuna on the right side.
5. temple depicts Vishnu in various forms (Sheshashayana on the south, Nara-Narayan on the east and Gajendramoksha on the west), due to which it was assumed that the four subsidiary shrines must also have housed Vishnu’s avatars and the temple was mistaken for a dasavatara temple. In fact, it is not actually known to whom the four subsidiary shrines were originally dedicated
6. temple is west-facing, which is less common, as most temples are east- or north-facing.

Question 160

Lakhsman temple, Khajuraho?

Answer 160

• dedicated to Vishnu, was built in 954 by the Chandela king, Dhanga.
• A nagara temple, it is placed on a high platform accessed by stairs. There are four smaller temples in the corners, and all the towers or shikharas rise high
• crowning elements: amalak and kalash, are to be found on all nagara temples of this period.
• The temple also has projecting balconies and verandahs

Question 161

Chausanth Yogini temple?

Answer 161

at Khajuraho

• Predating the tenth century, this is a temple of small, square shrines of roughly-hewn granite blocks, each dedicated to devis or goddesses associated with the rise of Tantric worship after the seventh century.
• Several such temples were dedicated to the cult of the yoginis across Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and even as far south as Tamil Nadu. They were built between the seventh and tenth centuries

Question 162

Modhera Sun temple, GJ?

Answer 162

• dates back to early eleventh century and was built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki Dynasty in 1026.
• This hundred-square-metre rectangular pond is perhaps the grandest temple tank in India
• A hundred and eight miniature shrines are carved in between the steps inside the tank.
• A huge ornamental arch-torana leads one to the sabha mandapa (the assembly hall) which is open on all sides, as was the fashion of the times in western and central Indian temples

Question 163

Konark Sun temple?

Answer 163

1. built in stone around 1240.
2. Its shikhara was a colossal creation said to have reached 70m, which, proving too heavy for its site, fell in the nineteenth century.
3. The vast complex is within a quadrilateral precinct of which the jagamohana or mandapa has survived, which though no longer accessible is said to be the largest enclosed space in Hindu architecture.
4. temple is set on a high base, its walls covered in extensive, detailed ornamental carving. These include twelve pairs of enormous wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs, representing the chariot wheels of the Sun god who, in mythology, rides a chariot driven by seven horses, sculpted here at the entrance staircase. The whole temple thus comes to resemble a colossal processional chariot.
5. On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of surya carved out of green stone. It is said that there were three such images, each carved out of a different stone placed on the three temple walls, each facing different directions. The fourth wall had the doorway into the temple from where the actual rays of the sun would enter the garbhagriha

Question 164

Temples in east india?

Answer 164

• Eastern Indian temples include those found in the NorthEast, Bengal and Odisha. Each of these three areas produced distinct types of temples.
• The history of architecture in the North-East and Bengal is hard to study because a number of ancient buildings in those regions were renovated, and what survives now are later brick or concrete temples at those sites.
• It appears that terracotta was the main medium of construction, and also for moulding plaques which depicted Buddhist and Hindu deities in Bengal until the seventh century.

Question 165

Temples in Assam?

Answer 165

• An old sixth-century sculpted door frame from DaParvatia near Tezpur and another few stray sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear witness to the import of the Gupta idiom in that region. This post-Gupta style continued in the region well into the tenth century.
• However, by the twelfth to fourteenth centuries, a distinct regional style developed in Assam. The style that came with the migration of the Tais from Upper Burma mixed with the dominant Pala style of Bengal and led to the creation of what was later known as the Ahom style in and around Guwahati.
• Kamakhya temple, a Shakti Peeth, is dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya and was built in the seventeenth century

Question 166

Temples in bengal?

Answer 166

1. Pala style: developed during the period between the ninth and eleventh centuries in Bengal (including Bangladesh) and Bihar; they were Buddhist rulers
2. while the style of those of the mid-eleventh to mid-thirteenth centuries is named after the Sena kings; they were hindu rulers. thus Pala style is influenced by both religions
3. Palas are celebrated as patrons of many Buddhist monastic sites, the temples from that region are known to express the local Vanga style
4. 9th century Siddhesvara Mahadeva temple in Burdwan District, for example, shows a tall curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka and is an example of the early Pala style. similar to contemporaneous Odisha style. This basic form grows loftier with the passing of centuries
5. influenced by local vernacular building traditions of bengal, like shape of the curving or sloping side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut. This feature was eventually even adopted in Mughal buildings, and is known across North India as the Bangla roof
6. eg, terracota temple, vishnupur

Question 167

Temples in hill regions?

Answer 167

1. Kashmir’s style strongly influenced by Gandhara style by 5th cent CE.
2. This began to mix with the Gupta and post-Gupta traditions that were brought to it from Sarnath, Mathura and even centres in Gujarat and Bengal. As a result both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills.
3. Also had their own tradition of wooden buildings with pitched roofs. Thus, main garbhagriha and shikhara were made in rekha-prasad style, the mandapa is of an older form of wooden architecture. Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda shape
4. Karkota period of Kashmir is the most significant in terms of architecture.
5. . One of the most important temples is Pandrethan, built during the eighth and ninth centuries. In keeping with the tradition of a water tank attached to the shrine, this temple is built on a plinth built in the middle of a tank. This was a Hindu temple (though Buddhist temples also found in the region) possily dedicated to shiva. Due to the snowy conditions in Kashmir, the roof is peaked and slants slowly outward. temple is moderately ornamented, moving away from the post-Gupta aesthetics of heavy carving​
6. At Chamba, in sculptures, images of Mahishasuramardini and Narasimha at the Laksna-Devi Mandir are evidences of the influence of the post-Gupta tradition. Both the images show the influence of the metal sculpture tradition of Kashmir. The yellow colour of the images is possibly due to an alloy of zinc and copper which were popularly used to make images in Kashmir. This temple bears an inscription that states that it was built during the reign of Meruvarman who lived in the seventh century.

Question 168

development of temple arch in South India?

Answer 168

1. began under Pallava ruler Mahendraverman
2. dev can be seen in 4 stages, all during pallava dynasty:
   
   1. mahendra grp: under Mahendraverman; basically rock-cut temples; under him temples were known as mandapas
   2. Narsimha grp:
      
      • under Narsimhverman
      • rock cut temples decorated by intricate sculptures
      • mandapas were divided into separate rathas
      • biggest ratha called dharamraj ratha while smallest one called Draupadi ratha
      • dravidian style (Cholas) are successor of dharamraj ratha
   3. Rajsimha grp:
      
      • under Rajsimhverman
      • dev of real structural temples started in place of rock-cut ones
      • eg. shore temple at mahabalipuram, Kailashnath tenple at Kanchipuram
   4. Nandiverman grp
      
      • temples built were smaller
      • featues almost identical to Dravidian style
3. After decline of Pallava dynasty, the Dravidian style under Cholas emerged

Question 169

Dravidian style?

Answer 169

1. under patronage of Chola ruler
2. conyinuation of previous Pallava architecture with some variations
3. features
   
   1. high boundary walls
   2. frnt wall: high entrance gateway called gopuram
   3. temple premise laid out in panachayatan style with 4 subsidiary shrines
   4. spire is in the form of stepped pyramid rising linearly , It was called vimana
   5. crowning element is shaped in the form of an octagon and is called shikhara, similar to kailasha in nagara style BUT not spherical
   6. Only one Vimana on top of main temple; subsidiary shrines don’t hv it, unlike in nagara style
   7. assembly hall connected to garbhagriha by vestibular tunnel called antarala
   8. entrance of garbhagriha had sculptures of Dwaarpaal, mithun and Yakhshas
   9. unique feature: presence of a water tank intemple enclosure
   10. eg. Brihadeswara temple at tanjore (by raja raja I in 1011 AD), Gangaikondacholapuram (by rajendra I)

Question 170

Nayaka school?

Answer 170

1. under Nayaka rulers in 16th-18th centuries
2. aka Madurai school
3. architecturally similar to dravidian bt larger in scope
4. features:
   
   1. presence of Prakarns or huge corridors in portico around garbhagriha, alng with roofed ambulatory passageways
   2. gopurams built were some of the largest; art of Gopurams reached climax
   3. temple str filled with intricate carvings
   4. eg. Meenakshi temple (largest Gopuram), Madurai

Question 171

Vesara school?

Answer 171

1. aka KN school
2. flourished under late Chalukya rulers in mid 7th cent AD
3. combined features of both Nagara and Drvidian styles and thus a hybird style
   
   1. emphasis on Vimana and Mandapa
   2. open ambulatory passageway
   3. pillars, doorways and ceilings decorated with intricate carvings
   4. eg. Dodda basappa temple at Dambal; Ladkhan temple at Aihole; temples at Badami

Question 172

Vijaynagara school?

Answer 172

1. influenced by Indo-islamic style of Bijapur
2. features:
   
   1. walls highly decorated with carvings and geometrical patterns
   2. Gopurams, previously only on frnt side, nw on all sides
   3. enclosing walls larger
   4. more than one mandapas in each temple; central mandapa came to be called as kalyan mandapa
   5. concept of secular buildings inside temple premises was also introduced in this period
   6. eg. Vittalswami temple, Lotus Mahal etc.

Question 173

Hoysala school?

Answer 173

1. in KN, near Mysore
2. under Hoysala rulers betn 1050-1300 AD
3. main centres at: Belur, halebid and Sringeri
4. features:
   
   1. multiple shrines around a central pillared hall
   2. unlike crucified plan of Panchayatan style, shrines in star shape called Stellate plan
   3. Soft soap stone was the main material used
   4. massive emphasis on decoration thru sculptures; both interior and exterior walls; even the jewelleries of gods intricately carved
   5. All the chambers had Shikharas, which were interconneted by an arrangement of horizontal lines and mouldings
   6. temples built on upraised platform called Jagati
   7. walls and stairs followed zigzag pattern
   8. eg. Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebid; Chennakesava temple at Belur

Question 174

types of shrines in early temples?

Answer 174

The shrines of the temples were of three kinds—

(i) sandhara type (without pradikshinapatha),
(ii) nirandhara type (with pradakshinapatha), and
(iii) sarvatobhadra (which can be accessed from all sides)

These temples are simple structures consisting of a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear.

egs. temples of Deogarh, UP; Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri in MP

Question 175

types of shrines in early temples?

Answer 175

The shrines of the temples were of three kinds—

(i) sandhara type (without pradikshinapatha),
(ii) nirandhara type (with pradakshinapatha), and
(iii) sarvatobhadra (which can be accessed from all sides)

These temples are simple structures consisting of a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear.

egs. temples of Deogarh, UP; Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri in MP

Question 176

Guru Gobind Singh?

Answer 176

1. He was the 10th Sikh guru.
2. He was born at Patna, Bihar, India, on December 22, 1666. His birthday sometimes falls either in December or January or even both months in the Gregorian calendar. The annual celebration of the Guru’s birthday is based on the Nanakshahi calendar.
3. He became the Sikh guru at the age of nine, following the demise of father, Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru.
4. He is known for his significant contributions to the Sikh religion, including the introduction of the turban to cover hair.
5. He also founded the principles of Khalsa or the Five ‘K’s.
6. He is also responsible to establish the highest order in the Sikh community.
7. Followers of the Sikh faith religiously follow the morals and codes of discipline set up by Guru Gobind Singh.
8. He fought against the Mughals later in battle of Muktsar in 1705.
9. He was assassinated in 1708.
10. He named Guru Granth Sahib, the religious text of the Khalsas and the Sikhs, as the next Guru of the two communities.

Question 177

patola sarees?

Answer 177

1. Patola, the trademark saree of Gujarat, is considered to be very costly and worn only by royals or aristocrats.
2. It is a double ikat woven sari,usually made from silk, made in Patan, Gujarat, India.
3. The reason high cost of Patola sarees is that the silk yarn used to make them is purchased from Karnataka or West Bengal, where silk processing units are situated. This increases the cost of the fabric manifolds.
4. It has received a Geographical Indication (GI) tag in 2013.
5. Recently KVIC inaugurated a first Silk Processing Plant at Surendranagar in Gujarat. The plant would help to reduce the cost of production of silk yarn and increase the sale and availability of raw material for Gujarati Patola Sarees locally.

Question 178

Bibi ka Maqbara?

Answer 178

It is a tomb located in Aurangabad, Maharashtra.

It was commissioned in 1660 by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in the memory of his first and chief wife Dilras Banu Begum.

It is considered to be a symbol of Aurangzeb’s ‘conjugal fidelity’.

The structure, known as the ‘Taj of the Deccan’ because of its striking resemblance to the Taj Mahal.

Question 179

Tulu language?

Answer 179

1. Tulu is a textbook example of linguistic discrimination.
2. Tulu is a Dravidian language whose speakers are concentrated in two coastal districts of Karnataka and in Kasaragod district of Kerala. Kasaragod district is called ‘Sapta bhasha Samgama Bhumi (the confluence of seven languages)’, and Tulu is among the seven.
3. The Census reports 18,46,427 native speakers of Tulu in India. The Tulu-speaking people are larger in number than speakers of Manipuri and Sanskrit, which have the Eighth Schedule status.
4. Robert Caldwell (1814-1891), in his book, A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages, called Tulu as “one of the most highly developed languages of the Dravidian family”.
5. The present-day Tulu linguistic majority area is confined to the region of Tulu Nadu, which comprises the districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi in Karnataka and the northern part of Kasaragod district of Kerala up to the river Payaswani, or Chandragiri. The cities of Mangaluru, Udupi and Kasaragod are the epicentres of Tulu culture.

Question 180

Linguistic diversity of India?

Answer 180

1. Kos-kos par badle paani, chaar kos par baani
2. According to the 2001 Census, India has 30 languages that are spoken by more than a million people each.
3. Additionally, it has 122 languages that are spoken by at least 10,000 people each.
4. It also has 1,599 languages, most of which are dialects. These are restricted to specific regions and many of them are on the verge of extinction.
5. More than a decade after the 2001 Census, the People’s Linguistic Survey of India, headed by eminent academic G.N. Devy, found that our country is home to 780 languages and 66 different scripts.
6. Further,there are languages like Banjari, Bundeli, Bhojpuri are grouped under Hindi, Rajbangshi and Kamtapuri that are grouped under Bengali.

Question 181

‘Zo Kutpui’ festival?

Answer 181

1. by Mizoram govt to unify Mizo tribes
2. The first festival would be held at Vanghmun, a hub town of Mizos in neighbouring Tripura.
3. The event will see the presence of many important dignitaries from various Mizoram tribes and also witness cultural programmes and traditional songs from various Mizo tribes from Mizoram and other northeastern states.

Question 182

Classical Language status in India?

Answer 182

• Guidelines for declaring a language as ‘Classical’:

1. High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years.
2. A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers.
3. The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community.
4. The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.

• Benefits of being declared a Classical language

1. Two major annual international awards for scholars of eminence in classical Indian languages.
2. A Centre of Excellence for studies in Classical Languages is set up.
3. The UGC is requested to create, to start with at least in the Central Universities, a certain number of Professional Chairs for the Classical Languages so declared.

• Current Classical languages: Six: Tamil (declared in 2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada (2008), Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013), and Odia (2014).

Question 183

Bharati script?

Answer 183

1. It is an alternative script for the languages of India developed by a team at IIT-M
2. The scripts that have been integrated include Devnagari, Bengali, Gurmukhi, Gujarati, Oriya, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil.
3. The Bharati characters are made up of three tiers stacked vertically. The consonant at the root of the letter is placed in the centre and the modifiers are in the top and bottom tiers.
4. Bharati has, in general, 17 vowels and 22 consonants.
5. Need: A common script for the entire country is hoped to bring down many communication barriers in India.
6. recently, the researchers hv also developed a method for reading documents in Bharati script using a multi-lingual optical character recognition (OCR) scheme.

Question 184

Epiphany festival?

Answer 184

celebrated in parts of INdia, like Goa and Kerala

Goa: called “Festa dos Reis”

Kerala: called “Denha”

Epiphany is a feast day, or a day of commemoration, which in Christianity marks the visit of the Magi (meaning the Three Wise Men or Three Kings) to the Infant Jesus

According to Christian belief, the Magi — Balthasar, Melchior, and Gaspar (or Casper), the kings of Arabia, Persia, and India, respectively — followed a miraculous guiding star to Bethlehem, where they paid homage to the Infant Jesus.

The three are said to have brought gifts for Jesus: gold by Melchior, myrrh by Balthasar, and incense by Gaspar.

The day also commemorates the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River.

Question 185

what is ‘Seke’?

Answer 185

1. one of the over 100 indigenous languages of Nepal.
2. Is considered as ‘Definitely Endangered’ language
3. Seke has been retreating in the face of Nepali, which is Nepal’s official language and is considered to be crucial for getting educational and employment opportunities
4. younger generation does not find much use in learning the language, giving preference to Nepali and English.
5. Recently, The New York Times reported that the “near-extinct” Nepalese language Seke has just 700 speakers around the world.

Question 186

Six degrees of endangerment of language?

Answer 186

acc to UNESCO,

1. Safe: languages spoken by all generations and their intergenerational transmission is uninterrupted.
2. Vulnerable: spoken by most children but may be restricted to certain domains.
3. Definitely endangered: no longer being learnt by children as their mother tongue.
4. Severely endangered: languages spoken by grandparents and older generations, and while the parent generation may understand it, they may not speak it with the children or among themselves.
5. Critically endangered: the youngest speakers are the grandparents or older family members who may speak the language partially or infrequently.
6. Extinct: No speakers left

Question 187

Fore Kandhana?

Answer 187

1. in nashik district
2. located in the Ajantha-Saatmal Mountain range
3. In the 1665 Treaty of Purandhar betn Jai Singh and Shivaji, Marathas gave the fort to the Mughals
4. However, later Shivaji sent Tanhaji malusare to regain the fort

Question 188

Various Harvest festivals in India?

Answer 188

1. Makar Sankranti: The festival of Makar Sankranti will be celebrated in Karnataka when the Sun enters the Makar zodiac and the days begin to lengthen compared to nights.
2. Pongal: In South India and particularly in Tamil Nadu, it’s the festival of Pongal which is being celebrated over 4 days at harvest time.
3. Magha Bihu: In Assam and many parts of the North East, the festival of Magha Bihu is celebrated. It sees the first harvest of the season being offered to the gods along with prayers for peace and prosperity.
4. Uttarayan: Gujarat celebrates it in the form of the convivial kite festival of Uttarayan.
5. Maghi: In Punjab, Makar Sankranti is celebrated as Maghi. Bathing in a river in the early hours on Maghi is important.
6. Saaji: In Shimla District of Himachal Pradesh, Makara Sankranti is known as Magha Saaji. Saaji is the Pahari word for Sankranti, start of the new month. Hence this day marks the start of the month of Magha.
7. Kicheri: The festival is known as Kicheri in Uttar Pradesh and involves ritual bathing.

Question 189

Nagardhan excavations?

Answer 189

1. Nagardhan, near Nagpur
2. excavations relate to Vakataka dynasty and Vakataka rule under Queen Prabhavatigupta
3. Findings:

• An oval-shaped sealing has been traced. It belongs to the period when Prabhavatigupta was the queen of the Vakataka dynasty.
• It bears her name in the Brahmi script, along with the depiction of a conch.
• The presence of the conch, scholars say, is a sign of the Vaishnava affiliation that the Guptas held.
• A copper plate issued by Queen Prabhavatigupta has also been found. It starts with a genealogy of the Guptas, mentioning the Queen’s grandfather Samudragupta and her father Chandragupta II.
• Since the Vakataka people traded with Iran and beyond through the Mediterranean Sea, scholars suggest that these sealings could have been used as an official royal permission issued from the capital city. Besides, these were used on documents that sought mandatory royal permissions.

Question 190

Who was Queen Prabhavatigupta?

Answer 190

1. The Vakataka rulers were known to have forged several matrimonial alliances with other dynasties of their times. One of the key alliances was with Prabhavatigupta of the mighty Gupta dynasty, which was then ruling north India.
2. After marrying Vakataka king Rudrasena II, Prabhavatigupta enjoyed the position of Chief Queen.
3. Scholars say Queen Prabhavatigupta was among a handful of women rulers in India to have reigned over any kingdom during ancient times. Also, there had been no evidence so far of any successor female ruler within the Vakataka dynasty, the researchers suggest.
4. She ruled for about 10 years until her son Pravarasena II
5. She had a pivotal role in propagation of Vaishnava practices in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra.

Question 191

Vakataka dynasty?

Answer 191

1. Ruled parts of Central and South India between the third and fifth centuries.
2. Rule extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the west to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east.
3. They were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan and contemporaneous with the Guptas in northern India.
4. They were Shaivite rulers.
5. Nagardhan served as a capital of the Vakataka kingdom.
6. The elephant god was a commonly worshipped deity in those times.
7. Animal rearing was one of the main occupations. Remains of seven species of domestic animals — cattle, goat, sheep, pig, cat, horse and fowl — have been traced.
8. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena.

Question 192

Nagoba Jatara?

Answer 192

1. It is a month long tribal festival held in Telangana.
2. Also known as Keslapur jatara.
3. It is a huge religious and cultural event of the Boigutta branch of Mesram clan of the aboriginal Raj Gond and Pardhan tribes.
4. During the festival, the maha puja of serpent god Nagoba is held.
5. The Gusadi Dance performance by dancers from the Gond tribe is a major special attraction of the event.

Question 193

KN anti-superstition law: bans what?

Answer 193

bans the following:

1. Performing any inhumane act, evil practices and black magic in search of treasure, bounty.
2. Tantric acts including physical and sexual assault.
3. Parading anyone naked.
4. Ostracising anyone in the name of ritual and encouraging inhumane acts.
5. Creating impression of ‘possession’ and exorcism.
6. Assaulting people under the garb of exorcism.
7. Spreading misinformation and creating panic in the garb of ghosts, black magic.
8. Making claims of healing power.
9. Propagating practices that involve self-mutilation.
10. Coercing people to perform fire-walking.

Question 194

KN anti-superstition law: doesn’t ban what?

Answer 194

1. The form of the worship such as Pradakshina, Yatra, Parikrama performed at religious places.
2. Harikata, Keerthana, Pravachana, Bhajana, teaching of ancient and traditional learning and arts, practice, propagation and circulation.
3. Miracles of the deceased saints propagation, publicity and circulation of the same and the propagation, publicity and distribution of literature about miracles of the religious preachers which do not cause physical injury.
4. Performance of prayers, upasana and religious rituals at home, temple, darghas, gurdwara, pagoda, church, and other religious places which do not cause physical injury.
5. All religious celebrations, festivals, prayers, procession and other act relating other rituals.
6. Piercing of ears and nose of children in accordance with rituals and performance of religious ritual such as Kesh Lochan by the Jains.
7. Advice in regard to vaastu shasthra, and advice by jyothishya and other astrologers.

Question 195

Madur Mats?

Answer 195

unique to WB

An intrinsic part of the Bengali lifestyle, Madur mats are made of natural fibres.

Also known as Madurkathi, these mats are awarded the Geographical Indication (GI) tag by the Geographical Indication Registry in April 2018.

Madurkathi is a rhizome-based plant found abundantly in the alluvial tracts of Purba and Paschim Medinipur.

In 1744, Nawab Alibardi Khan issued a charter to land-owning jagirdars in this regard, and as a result, it was obligatory to supply Masland mats for use in the Collectorate.

Question 196

Dara Shikoh?

Answer 196

son of ShahJahan, was declared Crown prince in 1655, bt was assassinated by Aurangzeb in 1659

He was a champion of interfaith understanding, philosopher, artist, architect, translator, poet and administrator

Dara Shikoh had very little military experience as Shah Jahan had kept him in the court.

He strove to develop cordial relationships between people by finding commonalities between Hinduism and Islam and bringing their cultures into dialogue. His most important works, Majma-ul-Bahrain (Mingling of Two Oceans) and Sirr-i-Akbar (Great Mystery), are devoted to the cause of establishing connections between Hinduism and Islam. He not only discovered commonalities but even said that the foundation of the two religions is the same, which is the belief, “One Reality and One God”

Dara Shikoh acquired proficiency in Sanskrit and Persian, which enabled him to play a key role in popularising Indian culture and Hindu religious thought. He translated the Upanishads and other important sources of Hindu religion and spirituality from Sanskrit to Persian. Through these translations, he was responsible for taking the Hindu culture and spiritual traditions to Europe and the West.

As a talented architect, he designed the beautiful Pari Mahal Garden Palace in Srinagar, and many other monuments.

Question 197

T/F: The Guptas were the first to build structural temples

Answer 197

T

The Guptas were the first to build structural temples, distinctly different from the ancient rock-cut temples.

Question 198

T/F: only two structural temples from the Gupta age have been found so far — Dashavatara Temple (Deogarh) and Bhitargaon Temple (Kanpur Dehat).

Answer 198

T

Prior to the discovery of stairs to a temple at Bilsarh site at Etah, MP, only two other structural temples from the Gupta age have been found so far — Dashavatara Temple (Deogarh) and Bhitargaon Temple (Kanpur Dehat).

Note that the temple is still not discovered at Bilsarh site so it will still not be counted

Question 199

What is the Shankhalipi script?

Answer 199

1. Shankhalipi or “shell-script” is a term used by scholars to describe ornate spiral characters assumed to be Brahmi derivatives that look like conch shells or shankhas.
2. They are found in inscriptions across north-central India and date to between the 4th and 8th centuries.
3. Both Shankhalipi and Brahmi are stylised scripts used primarily for names and signatures. The inscriptions consist of a small number of characters, suggesting that the shell inscriptions are names or auspicious symbols or a combination of the two.
4. The script was discovered in 1836 on a brass trident in Uttarakhand’s Barahat by English scholar James Prinsep, who was the founding editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
5. Prominent sites with shell inscriptions include the Mundeshwari Temple in Bihar, the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh, Mansar in Maharashtra and some of the cave sites of Gujarat and Maharashtra. In fact, shell inscriptions are also reported in Indonesia’s Java and Borneo.
6. Shankhalipi is found to be engraved on temple pillars, columns and rock surfaces. No such inscriptions with dates or numbers have been reported so far even as their chronology can be determined by the objects on which they are written.

Question 200

Swadesh Darshan scheme?

Answer 200

It was launched by the Ministry of Tourism in 2014-15 to develop theme-based tourist circuits in the country.

• It is a 100% centrally funded scheme for project components undertaken for public funding.
• It also has provision for leveraging voluntary funding under Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives of Central Public Sector Undertakings and the corporate sector.

Under this scheme, 13 thematic circuits have been identified for development.

These are:

1. Buddhist Circuit,
2. North-East India Circuit,
3. Coastal Circuit,
4. Himalayan Circuit,
5. Krishna Circuit,
6. Desert Circuit,
7. Eco Circuit,
8. Wildlife Circuit,
9. Tribal Circuit,
10. Rural Circuit,
11. Spiritual Circuit,
12. Ramayana Circuit and
13. Heritage Circuit.

Question 201

Buddhist circuit?

Answer 201

announced by CG in 2016 under Swadesh Darshan scheme

• The Buddhist circuit is a route that follows in the footsteps of the Buddha from Lumbini in Nepal where he was born, through Bihar in India where he attained enlightenment, to Sarnath and Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh in India, where he gave his first teachings and died.
• These sites currently receive approximately six per cent of nationwide foreign tourist arrivals, with Sarnath and Bodh Gaya leading the pack.
• Initially, it was envisaged only to seven major Buddhist pilgrimage sites in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, later it was expanded to 21 more states to make it India’s first trans- national tourist circuit.
• It has identified stupas and viharas in these 21 states, around which small intra-state Buddhist zones will be developed.
• The states now that will be covered include Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Kerala, West Bengal, Goa, Gujarat and Jammu & Kashmir.

Question 202

Nihangs?

Answer 202

Nihang is an order of Sikh warriors. They are characterised by blue robes, antiquated arms such as swords and spears, and decorated turbans surmounted by steel quoits.

How were Nihangs different from other Sikhs, and other Sikh warriors?

Nihangs observe the Khalsa code of conduct in its strictest sense. They do not profess any allegiance to an earthly master. Instead of saffron they hoist a blue Nishan Sahib (flag) atop their shrines.

What is their role in Sikh history?

• Nihangs had a major role in defending the Sikh panth after the fall of the first Sikh rule (1710-15) when Mughal governors were killing Sikhs, and during the onslaught of Afghan invader Ahmed Shah Durrani (1748-65).
• Nihangs also took control of the religious affairs of the Sikhs at Akal Bunga (now known as Akal Takht) in Amritsar. They did not consider themselves subordinate to any Sikh chief and thus maintained their independent existence.
• Their clout came to an end after the fall of Sikh Empire in 1849 when the British authorities of Punjab appointed a manager (sarbrah) for the administration of the Golden Temple in 1859.

The Nihangs are fond of a popular drink called shardai or sharbati degh (sacrament drink) which contains grounded almonds, cardamom seeds, poppy seeds, black pepper, rose petals and melon seeds. When a small measure of cannabis is added to it, it is termed sukhnidhan (treasure of comfort). A higher dose of cannabis in it was known as shaheedi deg, sacrament of martyrdom. It was taken (while) battling enemies

Question 203

Guru Gobind Singh?

Answer 203

The last of the ten Sikh Gurus. He became the Sikh guru at the age of nine, following the demise of his father, Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru.

Born in Patna in 1666. He was assassinated in 1708.

• Contributions:
  
  • Religious:
    • He is known for his significant contributions to the Sikh religion, including the introduction of the turban to cover hair.
    • He also founded the principles of Khalsa or the Five ‘K’s.
      • The Five K’s are kesh (uncut hair), kanga (wooden comb), kara (iron or steel bracelet), kirpan (dagger) and kachera (short breeches).
      • These were the five articles of faith that a Khalsa must always adorn.
    • He also laid down many other rules for the Khalsa warriors to follow like abstaining from tobacco, alcohol, halal meat, etc. The Khalsa warrior was also duty-bound to protect innocent people from persecution.
    • He named Guru Granth Sahib, the religious text of the Khalsas and the Sikhs, as the next Guru of the two communities.
  • Martial:
    • He fought against the Mughals in the battle of Muktsar in 1705.
    • In the Battle of Anandpur (1704), the Guru lost his mother and two minor sons who were executed. His eldest son also died in battle.
  • Literary:
    • His literary contributions include the Jaap Sahib, Benti Chaupai, Amrit Savaiye, etc.
    • He also wrote the Zafarnama which was a letter to the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.

Question 204

Martand Sun Temple?

Answer 204

• The Martand Sun Temple Also known as Pandou Laidan is a Hindu temple dedicated to Surya.
• Built by the third ruler of the Karkota Dynasty, Lalitaditya Muktapida, in the 8th century CE.
• The temple is located five miles from Anantnag in the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir.
• It was destroyed by the orders of Muslim ruler Sikandar Shah Miri.
• The temple is one of the earliest known sun temples much older than Konark and Modhera.

Question 205

Kushinagar: historical significance?

Answer 205

• Among the most important of Buddhist pilgrimages, Kushinagar was where The Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana (ultimate salvation) in c. 483 BC.
• Today’s Kushinagar is identified with Kushinara, capital of the ancient Malla republic, which was one of the 16 mahajanapadas of the 6th-4th centuries BC.
• The area went on to be part of the kingdoms of the Mauryas, Shungas, Kushanas, Guptas, Harshavardhana, and the Palas.
• The first excavations in Kushinagar were carried out by Alexander Cunningham and ACL Carlleyle, who unearthed the main stupa and the 6-metre-long statue of the Reclining Buddha in 1876.
• Kushinagar is among the very few places in India where The Buddha is depicted in reclining form.

Question 206

Buddhist Tourism in India?

Answer 206

• While Buddhism originated in India and seven of the eight main Buddhist pilgrimage sites are in India, our country gets not even 1 percent of Buddhist pilgrims in the world.
• There is an awareness in the government that the absence of tourist infrastructure is a major reason why India loses out to Southeast Asian nations such as Indonesia and Thailand.
• For example, Kushinagar, one of the most important places in Buddha folklore, has among the lowest per capita income in UP.
• In 2016, the Ministry of Tourism announced the Buddhist Circuit as the country’s first transnational tourism circuit, covering sites in Nepal and Sri Lanka alongside those in India.
• The ministry’s map of the Buddhist Circuit includes Bodh Gaya, Vaishali, and Rajgir in Bihar, Kushinagar, Sarnath, and Shravasti in UP, and Lumbini in Nepal.

Question 207

Bhaskarabda?

Answer 207

• Bhaskarabda will be added to the Saka and Gregorian eras in the official calendar of the Assam Government.
• Bhaskarabda is an era counted from the date of the ascension of a seventh-century local ruler.
• Bhaskarabda began when Bhaskaravarman was crowned ruler of the Kamrupa kingdom. He was a contemporary and political ally of northern Indian ruler
• Unlike Gregorian, where a day starts at midnight, the Assamese calendar begins and ends at sunrise over 24 hours.
• While the Gregorian goes by the solar cycle, the Saka and Bhaskarabda eras use a lunisolar system based on both the phases of the moon and the solar year.
• The gap between Bhaskarabda and Gregorian is 593 years.

Question 208

Kartarpur Sahib Corridor?

Answer 208

first proposed in 1999 when Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee took a bus ride to Lahore. India and Pakistan signed an agreement in 2018

• The agreement will ensure a visa-free travel for the Indian pilgrims
• A list of shrines and holy places have been determined under the 1974 Protocol on Visits to Religious Shrines, as per which Indian and Pakistani citizens can visit the respective countries and their holy sites
• The agreement is valid for a period of five years and either of the two countries can terminate it giving a notice period of a month

completed for the 550th birth anniversary of Guru Nanak on 12 November 2019

connects Darbar Sahib Gurdwara located in Pakistan’s Narowal district, merely 4 kilometers away from Indian borders, with the Dera Baba Nanak shrine in Gurdaspur district in Punjab, India.

The corridor has been created on the banks of river Ravi, which is about 120 kilometers to the northeast of Lahore.

Only Indian citizens and tourists are allowed to use this corridor. Citizens of Pakistan cannot use the Kartarpur corridor to access Dera Baba Nanak on the Indian side without first obtaining an Indian visa or unless they work there

Pilgrims will be allowed to carry a dagger or kirpan

Question 209

Gurudwara Kartarpur Sahib?

Answer 209

• The Gurdwara Kartarpur Sahib is said to be established by the first Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak Dev in 1522
• Kartarpur is believed to be one of the holiest places for Sikhs as the Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak Dev preached there during the last eighteen years of his life.

Question 210

How Swami Vivekananda became the ‘messenger of Indian wisdom’ to West?

Answer 210

He is known to have introduced the Hindu philosophies of Yoga and Vedanta to the West.

He preached ‘neo-Vedanta’, an interpretation of Hinduism through a Western lens, and believed in combining spirituality with material progress.

Before his death in 1902, Vivekananda wrote to a Western follower: “It may be that I shall find it good to get outside my body, to cast it off like a worn out garment. But I shall not cease to work. I shall inspire men everywhere until the whole world shall know that it is one with God.”

He started his foreign travels in 1893 and visited Japan, China and Canada en route to USA.

Vivekananda is especially remembered around the world for his speech at the Parliament of the World’s Religions in Chicago in 1893. began his speech with “Sisters and brothers of America!”

The speech covered topics including universal acceptance, tolerance and religion, and got him a standing ovation.

Many parts of his speech have since become popular, including “I am proud to belong to a religion which has taught the world both tolerance and universal acceptance.

We believe not only in universal tolerance but we accept all religions as true.”

“I am proud to belong to a nation which has sheltered the persecuted and the refugees of all religions and all nations of the earth.”; and

“Sectarianism, bigotry, and its horrible descendant, fanaticism, have long possessed this beautiful earth…Had it not been for these horrible demons, human society would be far more advanced than it is now.”

Vivekananda attracted widespread attention in the press, which called him the “cyclonic monk from India”. The New York Herald noted, “Vivekananda is undoubtedly the greatest figure in the Parliament of Religions. After hearing him we feel how foolish it is to send missionaries to this learned nation”

He began delivering lectures at various places in the US and UK, and became popular as the ‘messenger of Indian wisdom to the Western world’. he remarked, “I have a message to the West as Buddha had a message to the East.” “I do not come”, said Swamiji on one occasion in America, “to convert you to a new belief. I want you to keep your own belief; I want to make the Methodist a better Methodist; the Presbyterian a better Presbyterian; the Unitarian a better Unitarian. I want to teach you to live the truth, to reveal the light within your own soul.”

He founded the Vedanta Society of New York in 1894

Vivekananda adapted traditional Hindu ideas and religiosity to suit the needs and understandings of his western audiences, who were especially attracted by and familiar with western esoteric traditions and movements like Transcendentalism and New thought

An important element in his adaptation of Hindu religiosity was the introduction of his “four yogas” model, which includes Raja yoga, his interpretation of Patanjali’s Yoga sutras, which offered a practical means to realise the divine force within which is central to modern western esotericism. In 1896, his book Raja Yoga was published, becoming an instant success; it was highly influential in the western understanding of yoga

His teachings cut across all divisions based on political or religious affiliations. He held that spirituality was the core of every religion; dogmatic exclusiveness and intolerance are not part of every religion.

The more spiritual a human, the more universal he/she is. He held that modern age stood in urgent need of this education from religion, by which human will learn to make their love of God into the love and service of all human.

Question 211

Vivekananda’s work and Ideas in India?

Answer 211

• Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose had called Vivekananda the “maker of modern India.” He formed the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 “to set in motion a machinery which will bring noblest ideas to the doorstep of even the poorest and the meanest.”
• religion and spirituality:
  
  • After coming back to India, he formed the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 “to set in motion a machinery which will bring noblest ideas to the doorstep of even the poorest and the meanest.”
  • In 1899, he established the Belur Math, which became his permanent abode.
  • The goals of his Mission were based on the ideals of Karma Yoga, with its primary objective to save the poor masses in India.
  • He urged people to achieve divinity of the soul through selfless work, worship and mental discipline.
• Nationalism:
  
  • Swami Vivekananda held up the idea of nationalism based on oneness and unity of people.
  • Swami Vivekananda also felt that no amount of politics would be of any avail until the masses in India were well educated, well fed, and well cared for.
  • An ardent nationalist, Swami Vivekananda had the welfare of his countrymen top most on his mind. “Arise, Awake and Stop not till the Goal is reached’’ was his perpetual message.
  • Swami Vivekananda exhorted his countrymen to discard narrow loves, hates, and grow into that wholeness which is perfection of character.
  • In the same vein, he exhorted the Hindus to discard the sectional loyalties of caste and sect and grow into that fullness and wholeness expressive of Divine in man.
• Education:
  
  • Talking about the importance of holistic education that takes care of the physical and mental wellbeing of the children.
  • For Swami Ji education did not mean academic pursuits alone. He stressed equally on physical fitness and bodily health.

Question 212

Medaram Jathara?

Answer 212

• Medaram Jatara is the second-largest fair of India, after the Kumbh Mela, celebrated by the second-largest Tribal Community of Telangana- the Koya tribe for four days.
• Considering the footfall of the festival and its auspicious significance, the Jathara was declared a State Festival in 1996.
• The Jatara is also known as Sammakka Saralamma Jatara.
• It is a tribal festival honoring the fight of a mother and daughter, Sammakka and Saralamma, with the reigning rulers against an unjust law.
• Medaram is a remote place in the Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary, a part of Dandakaranya, the largest surviving forest belt in the region.

Question 213

World heritage sites in India: cultural sites? (for info WHS refer f/c conservation)

Answer 213

1. Ajanta caves; Ellora caves; Agra fort; Taj Mahal (1983)
2. Konark Sun Temple; Mahabalipuram Grp of monuments (1984)
3. Churches and Convents of Goa; Khajuraho grp of monuments; Hampi grp of monuments (was added bt later removed from WHS in danger list); Fatehpur Sikri (1986)
4. Grp of monuments at Pattadakal; Elephanta caves; Chola temples (Brihadeshwar temple at Gabgaikondacholapuram, Airavateshwar temple at Darasuram and Brihadeshwram temple at Thanjavur) (1987)
5. Buddhist monuments at Sanchi (1989)
6. Humayun’s tomb, Delhi; Qutb Minar at its monuments (2003)
7. Mountain rlys of India:Darjeeling , Nilgiri rly at Ooty , Kalka-Shimla rly in HP
8. Mahabodhi Temple complex at Bodh Gaya (2002)
9. rock shelters at Bhimbetka (2003)
10. Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (2004)
11. Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park (2004)
12. Red fort complex (2007)
13. Janta Mantar Jaipur (2010)
14. Hill forts of RJ (Chittorgarh, Kumbhalgarh, Ranthambore, Amber forts, Jaisalmer, gagron) (2013)
15. Rani ki Vav (2014)
16. Archaeological site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar; architectural work of Le Corbusier (2016)
17. The Victorian and Art deco ensemble of Mumbai (2018)
18. Jaipur (2019)
19. Kakatiya Rudreswara (Ramappa) temple in telangana (2021)
20. dholavira, GJ (2021)

Question 214

Puri Heritage corridor?

Answer 214

Puri heritage corridor is being developed at a cost of Rs 800 crore in Odisha

● Conceived in 2016, the Project aims to transform the holy town of Puri into an international place of heritage.
● A total of 22 different projects will be executed in a phased manner.
● Funds have been allocated under the state government’s Augmentation of Basic Amenities and Development of Heritage and Architecture at Puri (ABADHA) scheme.
● The project includes redevelopment of Puri lake and Musa river revival plan.

Question 215

Puri Jagannath temple?

Answer 215

● It is an important Vaishnavite temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Sri Krishna in Puri in Odisha.
● The temple is believed to be constructed in the 12th century by King Anatavarman Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.

● idol of Jagannatha is made of wood and is ceremoniously replaced in every twelve or nineteen years by using sacred trees
● Jagannath Puri temple is called ‘Yamanika Tirtha’ where, according to the Hindu beliefs, the power of ‘Yama’, the god of death has been nullified in Puri due to the presence of Lord Jagannath.
● This temple was called the “White Pagoda” and is a part of Char Dham pilgrimages (Badrinath, Dwaraka, Puri, Rameswaram).
● The Puri temple is famous for its annual Ratha Yatra, or chariot festival, in which the three principal deities are pulled on huge and elaborately decorated temple cars.

Question 216

Ramappa temple?

Answer 216

Telngana’s first UNESCO World heritage site

● Situated in Telangana’s Warangal, the temple stands on a six-feet high star-shaped platform with walls, pillars and ceilings adorned with intricate carvings that attest to the unique skill of the Kakatiyan sculptors.
● The temple is named after its architect, Ramappa.
● Constructed in 1213 AD during the reign of the Kakatiya Empire by Recharla Rudra, a general of Kakatiya king Ganapati Deva.
● The temple’s presiding deity is Ramalingeswara Swamy.

Question 217

Kakatiya dynasty?

Answer 217

The 12th and the 13th centuries saw the emergence of the Kakatiyas.
They were at first the feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyana, ruling over a small territory near Warangal.
● The dynasty saw powerful leaders like Ganapathi Deva and Rudramadevi.
● Prataparudra I, also known as Kakatiya Rudradeva, was the son of the Kakatiya leader Prola II. It was under his rule that the Kakatiyas declared sovereignty. He ruled the kingdom till 1195 A.D.
● It was under the rule of Prataparudra I that usage of Telugu language in inscriptions began.
● Before the establishment of Orugallu/Warangal as the capital, Hanamakonda was the first capital of the Kakatiyas.
● The great Italian traveller Marco Polo visited the Kakatiya Kingdom sometime during Rudramadevi’s tenure as the ruler of the Kakatiya Dynasty and made note of her administrative style; admiring her extensively.
Art and architecture:
● The iconic Kakatiya Thoranam was built by Rudramadevi’s father in the 12th Century. This ornate arch is said to have many similarities with the gateways at the Sanchi Stupa and is also the emblem of Telangana.

● The scenic Pakhal lake in Warangal was built by Ganapathi Deva.
● The 1000 pillar temple in Warangal was built during the Kakatiya Rule and is another example to the exquisite Kakatiya Architecture.
● The Koh-i-Noor Diamond, which is now among the jewels set in the British Crown, was mined and first owned by the Kakatiya Dynasty.

● Ramappa temple, the most recent entry to UNESCO WHS, ad the first WHS from Telangana, was built by Kakatiya dynasty ruler Recharla Rudra.

Society:
Under the Kakatiya rule, the caste system was not rigid and in fact, it was not given much significance socially. Anyone could take up any profession and people were not bound to an occupation by birth.
The Kakatiya rule finally came to an end in 1323 A.D. when Warangal was conquered by the Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, the then Sultan of Delhi.

Question 218

Onake Obavva?

Answer 218

From this year, the Karnataka government has decided to celebrate ‘Onake Obavva Jayanti’ on November 11 throughout the state.
Who is Onake Obavva?
● Onake Obavva is a woman warrior who fought the forces of Hyder Ali single-handedly with a pestle (‘onake’ in Kannada) in Chitradurga in the 18th century.
● She died protecting the Chitradurga Fort, which was ruled by Madakari Nayaka in the 18th century.

● Obavva is considered to be the epitome of Kannada pride and celebrated along with other women warriors of Karnataka state.
● Onake Obavva’s courage and quick thinking have been praised by the people of Karnataka, especially in the Chitradurga region, where a stadium is named after her.
● Inspired by Onake Obavva, in 2018, the Chitradurga police started ‘Obavva Pade’, a squad of women police constables to protect and educate women in the district. This was later extended to Bangalore

Question 219

Names of women warriors from KN (on the similar lines as Onake Obavva)?

Answer 219

There are many such women warriors from Karnataka. Some of them are Abbakka Rani (first Tuluva Queen of Ullal in coastal Karnataka who fought the Portuguese), Keladi Chennamma (the queen of the Keladi Kingdom who is known for fighting against Mughal emperor Aurangzeb), and Kittur Chennamma (Queen of Kittur known for the 1824 revolt against the British East India Company).

Question 220

Rani Kamlapati?

Answer 220

The name of Bhopal’s Habibganj railway station has been changed to Rani Kamlapati station.

● Rani Kamlapati was the widow of Nizam Shah, whose Gond dynasty ruled the then Ginnorgarh, 55 km from Bhopal, in the 18th century.
● Kampalati is known to have shown great bravery in facing aggressors during her reign after her husband was killed.
● Kamlapati was the “last Hindu queen of Bhopal”, who did great work in the area of water management and set up parks and temples.
Who are Gonds?
The Gond are one of the largest tribal communities in India, spread across Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar and Odisha.

Question 221

Punaura Dham ?

Answer 221

As per the request received from the State Government of Bihar, Ministry of Tourism has included Punaura Dham in the Ramayana circuit of Swadesh Darshan Scheme. L
● The destination of Punaura Dham has been recently included under PRASHAD Scheme of the Ministry of Tourism.
● Punaura Dham, considered to be birthplace of Goddess Sita, is spread over around 10 acres of land in Punaura village, about 5km west of Sitamarhi town.
● The shrine compound has a Ram Janki temple, a pond called Sita Kund and a hall.

Question 222

Reclining Lord Vishnu?

Answer 222

A 1,000 years old sandstone sculpture of the reclining Lord Vishnu has been restored by Indian National Trust for Art and Culture Heritage.
● The Statue is situated in Bandhavgarh National Park (Madhya Pradesh).
● This is the first conservation and restoration project undertaken by INTACH in Madhya Pradesh.
● Popularly known as Shesh Shaiyya, the sculpture belongs to Kalchuri period (8th century, feudatories of the Rashtrakutas at central part of India)

Question 223

India’s cultural exports to east and SE Asia in ancient and medieval times and their remnants today?

Answer 223

covered in f/c foreign affairs

Question 224

history of sun worship in India?

Answer 224

1. In India, Sun worship possibly started in the Neolithic period. Images of the Sun can be seen in a rock shelter at Odisha’s Sundargarh district. The circular representations of Sun form two circles; the images have straight strokes (like sunrays) at intervals and around the outer circle. The rising Sun can be also seen in rock shelters near Raigarh and at Sitakhardi in Chambal valley. Besides, encircled Sun is depicted on Neolithic pottery found at Piklihal in Karnataka.
2. earliest representations of the Sun god riding a chariot can be seen on the railings of the Mahabodhi temple in Bihar’s Bodhgaya (2nd century BC), in Maharashtra’s Bhaja Caves (1st century BC), and at Khandagiri caves (1st century) in Odisha. The Sun rides one wheeled chariot drawn by four horses. The god is attended by a female figure on either side. In his right hand, he holds a lotus and in his left he holds the reins. On the right corner there is a demon of darkness in a flying pose.
3. Rayed disc is also seen on the coins of Panchala-Mitra (150 BC-50 BC)
4. In a 2nd century relief found near Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh, the Sun god rides a chariot drawn by four horses. The significance of the sculpture lies in the fact that it is on a pillar and an indication that there may have been a tradition of a Suryadhwaj or pillar dedicated to the Sun god in ancient shrines.
5. royal patronage:
   
   1. Pushyamitra, the Shunga ruler, has been taken by many as a Sun worshiper.
   2. Vardhan dynasty of Thaneswar in modern Haryana was a devotee of the Sun, as is evident by the epithet paramadityabhakta applied to three ancestors of Harshavardhan in the Sonepat copper plate inscription. Though Harsha himself was a Shaiva and later inclined towards Buddhism, he did not forsake his ancestral deity; in the religious assembly attended by Hiuen Tsang, the image of the Sun god was installed along with Buddha and Shiva.
   3. Pratihara kings Rambhadra and Vinayakapala appear to have been Sun worshippers too
   4. The Indore copper plate inscription of Gupta ruler Skandagupta, for instance, displays preference for the solar sect.
   5. The Mandasore stone inscription of Kumaragupta I refers to the construction of a Sun temple by a guild of weavers at Dasapur in central India.
   6. In Konkan, Bhoja II is believed to have given land for Kasheli’s Kanakaditya Sun temple.
   7. The tradition continued in the medieval period, with Rajput rulers associating themselves with the deity and the mythical Suryavansha
6. While images of the Sun god seem to have come into existence one or two centuries before the Current Era, it was only in the 5th century that religious texts started mentioning details pertaining to idols of Surya. As per the Brihat Samhita, Surya should be shown with two hands and wearing a beautiful crown. Vishnudharmottara Upapurana (written during the Gupta period), on the other hand, states that Surya should be shown with four hands; flowers in two hands, a staff in the third, and in the fourth holding writing equipment such as palm leaf and pen and, thereby, depicting him as the lord of both action and knowledge. Surya’s charioteer Arun is to be shown as seated. Two goddesses stand on either side of Surya, they are Usha and Pratyusha representing dawn and dusk, respectively. They are shown to be shooting arrows to dispel darkness. In some images, Surya stands flanked by his two consorts, Sanjya and Chhaya.
7. In Odisha, besides the world famous Konark temple, shrines dedicated to the deity are also found in Suvarnapur and inside the Lingaraj temple at Bhubaneswar. Surya as Biranchinarayan is the main deity in two temples – at Palia near Bhadrak and at Ganjam district’s Buguda. The Buguda temple, renovated by King Srikara Bhanjadev in 1790, has exquisite wood carvings on its ceilings and 46 pillars. The temple faces west and is called the ‘wooden Konark’.